Fig. 5: Characterization of ion migration.

a Schematic diagram of PL-V hysteresis test. The PL-V curves for forward and reverse scans between 0 and +0.8 V of (b) control and (c) target PSCs. d TOF-SIMS of control and target PSCs after storage in ambient air for about 900 h without any other accelerating treatment. e Transient ion-migration currents of PSCs and mobile ion concentrations in the control and target PSCs, 1.1 V forward bias applied to devices is removed. f OCVD curves of control and target PSCs after light soaking under AM1.5 illumination for 15 s. (Vph stands for photovoltage and the blue area represents that the PSCs are under irradiation).