Fig. 6: Calcification of tumor cells after incubation with VPCaNPs.

Representative fluorescence quantification of intracellular Ca²⁺ by (a) FCM and (b) CLSM after incubation with saline, VPQDs, CaNPs, and VPCaNPs for 4 h. Scale bar = 20 μm. c Intracellular phosphorous concentration after incubation for 24 h. Data are presented as the mean with SD (n = 3 biologically independent cells). Statistical differences were analyzed by a two-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test. d Cell calcification after incubation with nanomaterials for 48 h. e XRD pattern of the collected products from cell exocytosis after treatment with saline, VPQDs, CaNPs, and VPCaNPs for 48 h. f Representative images of transwell cell migration assay with saline, VPQDs, CaNPs, and VPCaNPs incubation. Scale bar = 100 μm. The saline groups were control groups. Each experiment was repeated three times independently with similar results.