Fig. 3: SHAP summary plot of yield constraints in farmers’ fields across Eastern India.

Drivers of rice yield in Eastern India as estimated by SHapely Additive exPlanation (SHAP) values, a post hoc method for assessing contributions of each feature to random forest crop yield predictions. Distributions of SHAP values from individual fields were grouped into management practices (A) and biophysical attributes (B). The color ramp indicates the actual value for the numeric variables or the assigned value (nominal) for categorical variables (see Supplementary Table 2 for further information). Variable importance was estimated by calculating the mean absolute SHAP value for all variables and is reported as numeric values along the y-axis. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.