Fig. 3: Fenton-like catalytic performance, reactive species identification and reaction process characterization.

a The degradation of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in different catalysts-activated PMS systems. b Comparison of I-NC and reported catalysts in a Fenton-like reaction. The relevant references are listed in Supplementary Table 5. c EPR spectra using 5,5-dimethyl−1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (TEMP) as trapping agents. d Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) curves of NC and I-NC under different conditions. e In situ Raman spectra of PMS, I-NC and their reaction. The cyan, purple and yellow regions represent the characteristic peaks of SO₄²⁻, SO₃(HSO₅⁻) and PMS*, respectively. f The ¹O₂ yield in different catalyst/PMS/CIP systems. g Degradation of multiple pollutants in the I-NC/PMS system. The name and chemical structure of relevant micropollutants are listed in Supplementary Fig. 33. h The oxidation mechanism of ¹O₂ for multiple micropollutants. The blue and yellow surfaces represent positive isosurface and negative isosurface, respectively. white, Grey, blue, red, yellow, and cyan spheres represent H, C, N, O, S, and F atoms, respectively. Conditions: [catalyst] = 0.04 g L⁻¹, [PMS] = 1 mM, [pollutants]₀ = 20 mg L⁻¹, [TEMP] = [DMPO] = 50 mM (if any). Error bars denote standard deviation of the experiments performed in triplicate. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.