Fig. 4: Characterization of EcN after electrostatic adsorption of INX-2.

a Representative CLSM images of EcN labeled with INX-2 (red fluorescence) and Hoechst 33342 (blue fluorescence). (Scale bar: 5 μm). b Growth curves of EcN in LB supplemented with varying concentrations of INX-2 at 37 °C (n = 6 independent samples). c Zeta potential of EcN and EcN@INX-2 (n = 3 independent samples). d Absorption spectra of EcN, INX-2 and EcN@INX-2. e Representative flow cytometry histograms showing the fluorescence of EcN loaded with INX-2 at various time points. f Number of colonies after incubation with different concentrations of INX-2 in bacterial suspensions incubated with laser irradiation (660 nm, 0.45 W cm⁻², 10 min) and then coated on LB agar plates (n = 3 independent samples). g Representative CLSM images depicting EcN co-cultured with the INX-2 complex following either in darkness or under laser irradiation (660 nm, 0.45 W cm⁻², 10 min), utilizing double fluorescence staining with SYTO 9 (green fluorescence) and PI (red fluorescence) (Scale bar: 5 μm). h Representative TEM images depicting the morphological characteristics of EcN following incubation with or without INX-2 under dark conditions, as well as post laser irradiation (660 nm, 0.45 W cm⁻², 10 min), disrupted bacterial walls are denoted by red arrows (Scale bar: 500 nm). Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3 independent samples). For a, d, e, g, and h the experiment was repeated three times independently with similar results. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.