Fig. 4: Co-occurrence network analysis of maternal and infant microbiomes across time points by groups.

Co-occurrence networks for (A) maternal samples at four time points and (B) infant samples at two time points. Nodes represent microbial taxa, with edges indicating significant co-occurrence relationships between taxa. Node size is proportional to the degree (number of connections), and colors indicate different communities identified by Louvain clustering. C Topological properties of the ecological networks depicting co-occurrence of the gut microbiome, including nodes, edges, clustering coefficient, network density, network diameter, Louvain community count, and modularity for both maternal and infant samples. Significant differences between the intervention and control groups were determined using a two-sided permutation test (1000 permutations), with significance set at p < 0.05. The p < 0.001 indicates a p = 0 returned when using 1000 permutations. Tri2 trimester 2, Tri3 trimester 3, Pn12 postnatal 1–2 months, Pn56 postnatal 5–6 months.