Fig. 3: In-situ ATR-SEIRAS investigation.

In-situ ATR-SEIRAS spectra ranging from 1750 to 2100 cm−1 (a) and 1280 to 1440 cm-1 (b) for various catalysts under the pulsed conditions (Ec = −0.1~−1.2 V vs. RHE, Ea = 0 V vs. RHE, without iR correction, ta = tc = 0.5 s). Peak area ratio of *COatop / *CObridge (c) and normalized peak area of *OCO (d) (normalized against the largest ν(O-H) band of *H2O) as a function of cathodic potential. Source data for Fig. 3 are provided as a Source Data file.