Fig. 2: The Zn nucleation and growth behaviors.

Deposited Zn morphologies on (a) Pb@CF and (b) CF electrodes at different deposition time and capacities under a current density of 40 mA cm−2. c Ex situ XRD patterns of Zn plating/stripping on the Pb@CF electrode under a current density of 10 mA cm−2. d Comparison of theoretical dimensionless plots for instantaneous and progressive nucleation models with experimental results at -1.3 V versus an Ag/AgCl electrode. e Calculated nucleus density at different deposition voltages based on the control and Pb-modified electrodes.