Fig. 1: Fabrication of functional tissue constructs with the acoustofluidic bioassembly method.

a Schematic of the cellular arrangement during embryonic (left) and acoustofluidic bioassembly (AB)-induced morphogenesis (right) in the neuromuscular tissues. Cellular morphogenesis followed by the acoustofluidic bioassembly can be conducted during in vitro or in vivo culture. b Schematic of the tissue fabrication using acoustofluidic bioassembly. c Fluorescent images of cells (red) arranged in a regular parallel line pattern in the tissue construct fabricated using the tissue molds having geometries including star, human arm, and heart. Scale bar represents 1 mm. White dotted lines represent the tissue mold boundary. d Schematic of fabricated tissue constructs in the mold placed on the human arm and a tile-scan fluorescent image of cells (red) of the entire tissue construct, and high-mag. image of cell aggregates at the center region. Scale bars in the tile scan and high-mag. images represent 5 mm and 50 μm. e Fluorescent images of cells arranged into parallel and sinusoidal lines, and concentric curves. Scale bars represent 0.5 mm. f Fluorescent image of cells (red) co-arranged with polystyrene polymer nanoparticles (green). Scale bars represent 20 μm. g Fluorescent images of cells (red) and collagen bundles (green) in the tissues fabricated without (w/o) and with (w/) the AB. Scale bar represents 100 μm. h Fluorescent image of cells (red) co-arranged with organoid (green). Scale bar represents 100 μm. i Numerical analysis of the normalized acoustic energy density as the function of the normalized mold thickness. j Normalized thickness of the tissue molds in the previous³¹ and this study (n = 14 independent samples). Error bars represent a standard deviation. k Photograph of the mass production of the tissue molds. l Schematic of the fabrication of multiple tissues with the array of the tissue fabrication devices. m Photograph of the array of the devices. n Fluorescent images of cells (red) arranged at each device. Scale bars represent 100 μm. Inset images within the solid orange rectangle in (d) and (f), and (g) have been enlarged by 700%, 200%, and 200% in length, respectively. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.