Fig. 3: The nucleation and deposition behavior of zinc.

Experimental dimensionless transients in comparison with the theoretical nucleation models of a baseline and b HESE solution. c Time-series SEM images of Zn in two electrolytes about Zn nucleation and initial growth. d Schematic illustration of the Zn nucleation and growth mechanisms. Surface flatness mapping of deposited zinc in e baseline and f HESE solution. In situ Raman spectra of the Zn/electrolyte interface in HESE during g plating and h stripping. i SEM images of plated Zn on Cu (A–E) in baseline electrolyte and (F–J) in HESE with a plating capacity from 0.2 mAh cm⁻² to 5 mAh cm⁻². In situ microscopy images of the Zn plating process in j baseline electrolyte and k in HESE at 10 mA cm⁻². l, m Cross-section SEM images of 10 mAh cm⁻² deposited zinc in baseline electrolyte and HESE, respectively.