Fig. 2: Risk difference of post-acute COVID-19 neuropsychiatric and related conditions in children aged 5–11, compared to the COVID-19-negative cohort.

Outcomes include cluster-level conditions across adverse childhood experiences, anxiety disorders, disruptive behavior disorders, eating and feeding disorders, elimination disorders, gender dysphoria/sexual dysfunction, intentional self-harm/suicidality, mood disorders, neurocognitive disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders, personality disorders, psychotic disorders, sleep-wake disorders, standalone symptoms, substance use and dependence, and tic disorders. The composite outcome refers to the occurrence of any listed neuropsychiatric or related condition. The sample size was 141,349 for the COVID-19 positive group and 441,790 for the COVID-19 negative group. Risk differences and 95% confidence intervals are shown. Red lines indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05), while gray lines indicate non-significant findings. P-values were calculated using two-sided t-tests; no adjustments were made for multiple comparisons.