Fig. 3: UNI-EMB performances in insect-dermis penetration, insect cellular uptake, and bioactivities.

a Schematic representation of the insect-dermis and insect cell penetration process. b Bright-field, dark-field, and partial merge images of insect bodies with control (H₂O), UNI-EMB, IL-EMB_111nm, commercial microemulsion (ME), and soluble granule (SG) treatment. The red dashed box indicates the merged region. The experiments were independently repeated three times with similar results. c Cellular delivery/association was studied in High Five cells using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The red dashed box delineates the magnified area. The experiments were independently repeated four times with similar results. d Fluorescence intensity within the endodermis (mean ± SD; n = 3 biological independent experiment, blank used as control). e Quantitative CLSM florescence intensity data of E* incubated with Hive Five cells (mean ± SD; n = 4 biological independent replicates, IL-EMB_111nm used as control). f Intracellular fluorescence of Hive Five cell analyzed by flow cytometry. g Insects were treated with EMB/CDS at concentrations of 100 mg L⁻¹, Mortality rates are shown for insects at 4 h, 8 h, and 24 h after treatment (mean ± SD; n = 4 biological independent replicates). h Median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values were calculated from Spodoptera exigua larvae treated with the dipping method. i Visualization of larvae and leaf damage at 48 h after dipping treatment with the control (H₂O), UNI-EMB, commercial ME, or commercial WG at 62.5 mg·L⁻¹; Dead larvae are indicated by red circles. Statistical significance is calculated by one-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey’s HSD test (two-sided; multiplicity-adjusted P values; d) or two-tailed t-test (e, g).