Fig. 5: Enhanced electrochemical stability via the decoupled electrolyte.

a Long-term cycling performance of the bare TEGDME, bare DMF, and 3G7F cells at 0.1 A g^–1 with a cut-off specific capacity of 500 mA h g⁻¹. b Comparison of overpotential and cycle life with previously reported electrolytes optimized for Li-CO₂ batteries with a metal-free catalyst. The detailed values are provided in Supplementary Table 5. c Rate performance of the bare DMF and 3G7F cells at various current densities from 0.1 to 2 A g⁻¹. In-situ DEMS results for the d bare DMF and e 3G7F cells during the first charge, tested at 200 µA within a capacity of 400 µAh. f Ex-situ FTIR spectra observed on positive electrode surfaces during the first cycle at 0.1 A g⁻¹ and collected at different discharge/charge states. The discharge products (Li₂CO₃) are highlighted with blue shading. The side products (HCO₂Li/CH₃CO₂Li) are marked with red * symbol.