Fig. 2: The configuration and parameters optimization of single-stage structure.

a The configuration and materials of single-stage structure. b The production of single-stage structures with different conical apex angle. c The vapor and water production of single-stage structures with different mass transfer gap. The inset represents the point at which the system reaches an ultra-high production equilibrium. d The mechanism behind the increase in water production caused by the increase in mass transfer gap. \({Q}_{e}\) is the evaporation capacity, and \({Q}_{c}\) represents the condensation capacity. e The vapor-to-water conversion efficiency of single-stage structure with a mass transfer gap of 8 mm at different time intervals. f The temperature difference between vapor and condensation surface in single-stage device with different mass transfer gap. g The vapor-to-water efficiency of single-stage device with different mass transfer gap. h–j The vapor concentration distribution in the same chamber under different mass transfer gap conditions was simulated by COMSOL software. Error bars in (b, c, e–g) represent the s.d. (n = 3) and data are presented as mean values ± s.d.