Fig. 3: Epitaxial remineralization recreates structure and restores function of prismatic enamel.

a Schematic illustration showing ELR coating and remineralisation of diazone and parazone prisms. b Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) image of ThT-stained ELR-coated prismatic enamel section. c Pseudo coloured AFM image of a partly mineralised enamel section showing distinct ELR coating (green), native enamel (brown), and newly grown nanocrystals (blue) at the ELR coating-enamel interface. After the mineralisation process, a part of the ELR coating was protected with nail varnish, while the exposed area was degraded using elastase to partially reveal the remineralised layer on the enamel surface. d, e SEM images of native and remineralised diazone and parazone prisms, recreating enamel microarchitecture of both prism and inter-prisms (representative images from n = 12 independent experiments). All the left panels in both Fig. 3d, e depict native enamel, while the right panels show remineralised enamel. The new crystals grow epitaxially from the native enamel, covering it and preventing its visualisation once the mineralised layer is formed. f Young’s modulus (E) and hardness (H) of native, acid-etched, and remineralised enamel. Bars represent the mean values of E and H while dot plot represents indentation measurements compiled from 3 independent experiments for each group. g Coefficient of Friction, and (h) Wear strength of native, acid-etched, and remineralised enamel samples (n = 3 samples for each group). Data are presented as mean ± SD. Statistical significance was analysed using two-sided one-way ANOVA (Tukey test) in GraphPad Prism ver. 10. In (f) **** represents a significant difference p < 0.0001, and ‘ns’ represents no significant difference. In (h) **** represents p < 0.0001 and *** represents p = 0.0008. Schematic illustration in (a) was prepared by scientific illustrator Leonora Martínez Nuñez.