Fig. 3: Surface oxidation state and oxygen species of CoCr2O4 and Co2CrO4 before and after OER.

XPS of a Co 2p, b Cr 2p, and c O 1 s levels of CoCr2O4; and d Co 2p, e Cr 2p, and f O 1 s levels of Co2CrO4 in the pristine state and after 1000 cycles. A standard Shirley background was applied to all spectra. Models of Co(0), CoO, Co(OH)2, CoOOH, Co3O4 were considered for the fitting of the Co 2p3/2. The detailed information regarding the XPS measurements and peak fitting process are presented and discussed in Supplementary Note 2.