Fig. 2: Mechanical properties of PVA hydrogels.

a Tensile stress-strain curves of different PVA hydrogels (15 wt%), with a summary of their b tensile strength and fracture strain, and c modulus and toughness. d Tensile stress-strain curves of different PVA hydrogels (20 wt%), with a summary of their e tensile strength and fracture strain, and f modulus and toughness. Summary of g water content and h fracture energy of PVA hydrogels prepared using different methods. i Comparison of mechanical properties of IV₁₅SH, AV₁₅H, AV₁₅SH, and AV₁₅SH-90°. Comprehensive mechanical property comparisons: j strength vs. modulus, k toughness vs. water content, and l toughness vs. strength of the prepared PVA hydrogels alongside other tough hydrogels. All data are presented as mean values ± SD, n = 3 independent samples.