Fig. 2: Energy flows from primary to secondary to final energy for the EU in 2020 and 2050. | Nature Communications

Fig. 2: Energy flows from primary to secondary to final energy for the EU in 2020 and 2050.

From: From net-zero to zero-fossil in transforming the EU energy system

Fig. 2: Energy flows from primary to secondary to final energy for the EU in 2020 and 2050.The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

a EU energy flows in 2020 (modeled). b EU energy flows in the LeastCost-NZ scenario in 2050. In this scenario, residual fossil primary energy use of 1.2 PWh/yr is still present at net-zero. c EU energy flows in the FosFree-NZ scenario in 2050. This scenario reaches near-zero fossil primary energy use at net-zero as residual fossil fuels are replaced by carbon-neutral e-fuels. Numbers correspond to the total outflow of energy for primary energy (fossil, biomass, renewable, nuclear) and secondary energy (hydrocarbons, heat, electricity, hydrogen, e-fuel imports) in PWh yr−1. Numbers correspond to total inflow for final energy (buildings, industry, transport) in PWh/yr. Flows amounting to less than 0.1 PWh yr−1 have been removed for clarity.

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