Fig. 5: Marginal abatement cost and aggregate consumption losses of EU net-zero scenarios with varying levels of residual fossil fuel consumption.

a EU marginal abatement cost on the y-axis against fossil fuel carbon consumption (carbon contained in total demand of fossil fuels) in 2050 on the x-axis across net-zero standard scenarios (black line). Moreover, corresponding fuel-switching CO₂ prices for replacing fossil liquid fuels by e-fuels based shadow prices from the model (dashed red line). b EU marginal abatement costs as in a across standard net-zero scenarios (black line) as well as sensitivity scenarios (thin colored lines). c EU aggregate 2025–2050 consumption losses (discounted at 3% per year) across standard net-zero scenarios (black line) as well as sensitivity scenarios (thin colored lines) relative to the Weak Policy scenario (see “Methods”) on the y-axis. The x-axis shows again fossil fuel carbon consumption in 2050 as in the other panels. See “Methods” section for the scenario assumptions and the calculation of consumption losses.