Table 2 Overview of all variables used in the analysis (N = 517)

GDP per capita

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita in 2015 in $1000 US at constant 2015 prices.

World Bank, 2022¹²⁶

21.76 x 10³

22.02 x 10³

0.35 x 10³

105.5 x 10³

HDI

United Nations Human Development Index in 2021.

United Nations, 2022¹²⁷

0.78

0.14

0.40

0.96

PHDI

United Nations Planetary pressure-adjusted Human Development Index in 2021.

United Nations, 2022¹²⁷

0.68

0.09

0.39

0.82

SDG_1.5 Indicator 1

The total number of people affected by natural disasters per 10.000.000 in 2020.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

1.12 x 10³

2.92 x 103

0

32.04 x 10³

SDG_2.1 Indicator 1

Prevalence of undernourishment in percentage of population in 2019.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

7.36

6.04

2.50

48.20

SDG_2.3 Indicator 1

Agricultural production in US$ per labor unit in 2019.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

81.22 x 10³

298.98 x 10³

0.32 x 10³

275.82 x 10³

SDG_2A Indicator 1

The agriculture shares of government expenditures, divided by the agriculture share of GDP.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

1.18

1.15

0.02

4.6

SDG_3.9 Indicator 3

Mortality rate of unintentional poisonings from hazardous chemicals per 100.000 in 2019.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

0.89

0.78

0.1

3.8

SDG_6.3 Indicator 2

Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

68.7

18.52

0

100

SDG_8.4 Indicator 2

Domestic material consumption (kg) per unit of GDP (constant 2015 US$) in 2019.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

1.45

1.37

0.1

9.14

SDG_8.8 Indicator 1

Non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 employees in 2015

World in Data, 2022⁹²

1.39 x 10³

1.12 x 10³

0.13 x 10³

8.92 x 10³

SDG_12.3 Indicator 1

Food waste per capita (kg) at retail level in 2019.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

14.21

5.75

3.12

78.82

SDG_12.4 Indicator 1

Parties meeting their commitments and obligations in transmitting information as required by the Rotterdam Convention on hazardous waste and pesticides in 2020.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

83.95

13.55

8.62

98.28

SDG_14.1 Indicator 1

The share of satellite imagery pixels measuring chlorophyll-a within a country’s exclusive Economic zone above the 90th percentile of the global baseline (2000-2004) in 2020.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

4.12

2.81

0.11

25

SDG_15.1 Indicator 2

The average proportion of freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas covered by protected areas in 2020.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

48.13

22.75

4.17

99.97

SDG_15.5 Indicator 1

The Red List Index [0,1] in 2020.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

0.83

0.09

0.62

0.99

Relative attainable yield

The mean attainable yield of major crops grown in the region (out of maize, rice, wheat, potatoes, soybeans, sugarcane, cassava, sorghum), relative to their global maximum attainable yield.

World in Data, 2022⁹²

0.70

0.12

Potential pest pressure

Potential maximal damages of pests and pathogens to major crops in the region.

Oerke, 2006¹

70.39

6.14

60

85

Level Risk Score of Used Pesticides

Environmental risk of current pesticide use, measured with the Risk Score.

Tang et al., 2021⁴⁰

2.34

0.77

0

4.01

Variable

Description

Source

Mean

SD

Min

Max

Implementation sustainable pest management

Current level of implementation of sustainable pest management (0–10), according to the above definition, in the production system of expertise.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

5.09

2.32

0

10

Field of research

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

… BioTech

Research on alternative pest management solutions (biological, mechanical, etc.).

27 (5%)

… Ecol

Research on (agro-)ecology.

57 (11%)

… Other

Respondent from Extension services, farming, policymaking, or industry.

87 (17%)

… PMS

Research in pest management sciences (e.g., weed sciences, entomology, plant pathology, agronomy)

243 (47%)

… Soc-Eco

Research in Social Sciences or Economics.

64 (12%)

… Toxi

Research in Toxicology (Human/Environmental) or Environmental Sciences.

39 (8%

Indicator assessment framework

Potential of sustainable pest management (−10 to +10) to…

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

FS1

…increase the provision of food in sufficient quantities.

4.47

4.73

−10

10

FS2

…increase the provision of diverse and nutritious food.

5.16

4.02

−8

10

FS3

…increase the provision of safe food and feed.

6.26

3.55

−8

10

FS4

…increase the resilience to extreme pest events resulting in hunger and food insecurity.

4.74

4.84

−10

10

Indicator assessment framework

Potential of sustainable pest management (−10 to +10) to…

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

ENV1

…reduce current pesticide pollution of drinking water.

6.41

3.21

−10

10

ENV2

…reduce current pesticide pollution of soils.

6.49

3.31

−10

10

ENV3

…reduce current pesticide damages to marine ecosystems

5.36

3.91

−10

10

ENV4

…reduce current pesticide damages to freshwater ecosystems.

6.67

3.22

−10

10

ENV5

…reduce current effects of pesticide use on biodiversity loss.

7.11

3

−6

10

Indicator assessment framework

Potential of sustainable pest management (−10 to +10) to…

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

HH1

…reduce pesticides’ current acute and long-term effects on health of farm workers.

6.48

3.29

−7

10

HH2

…reduce pesticides’ current acute and long-term effects on health of residents and bystanders.

5.67

3.34

−8

10

HH3

…reduce pesticides’ current acute and long-term effects on health of consumers.

5.85

3.5

−8

10

HH4

…restore trust in contaminated food - distorting food choices (e.g., fewer vegetables or fruits).

6.44

3.26

−10

10

Indicator assessment framework

Potential of sustainable pest management (−10 to +10) to…

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

SOC1

…improve the equal distribution of all costs and benefits from pest management (e.g., profit gains vs. adverse environmental and health effects) on local scales (between actors in a region).

4.63

3.71

−10

10

SOC2

…improve the equal distribution of all costs and benefits from pest management on global scales (between countries).

4.15

4.12

−10

10

SOC3

…improve the capacity of all farmers to adapt to future increases in pest pressure.

5.36

4.03

−10

10

SOC4

…improve equal access of all farmers to suitable education, tools, and technologies for pest management.

4.92

3.92

−10

10

SOC5

…ensure safe working conditions (e.g., gear & education) for all farm workers in pest management.

6.05

3.4

−10

10

Indicator assessment framework

Potential of sustainable pest management (−10 to +10) to…

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

ECON1

…increase the provision of affordable and efficient pest management solutions.

4.03

5.05

−10

10

ECON2

…enable production systems that can sustain the livelihood of farmers in the short run.

2.91

4.81

−10

10

ECON3

…enable production systems that can sustain the livelihood of farmers in the long run.

5.84

3.6

−9

10

ECON4

…increase economic resilience to extreme pest events.

4.54

4.85

−10

10

ECON5

…increase agricultural productivity growth threatened by pest damages.

5.21

4.12

−9

10

ECON6

…reduce indirect costs of pest management (e.g., decreasing soil productivity and pollination, increasing resistances).

6.6

3.12

−10

10

Type of crop

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

… Arable

Arable crops

152 (29%)

… General

All crops

201 (39%)

…Horticulture

Horticultural crops

164 (32%)

Scope of expertise

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

… larger

On a level of a continent or globally.

212 (41%)

… specific

On a level of national or local production systems.

305 (59%)

Importance category Food Security

Importance (0–10) of pest management for agricultural challenges in this category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

7.75

2.06

0

10

Importance category Environment

Importance (0–10) of pest management for agricultural challenges in this category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

6.95

2.17

0

10

Importance category Human Health

Importance (0–10) of pest management for agricultural challenges in this category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

6.39

2.67

0

10

Importance category Social Equality

Importance (0–10) of pest management for agricultural challenges in this category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

6.26

2.6

0

10

Importance category Economy and Livelihoods

Importance (0–10) of pest management for agricultural challenges in this category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

7.91

1.83

1

10

Strength expertise Food Security

Strength of expertise (0–10) in the category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

5.5

2.94

0

10

Strength expertise Environment

Strength of expertise (0–10) in the category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

6.62

2.57

0

10

Strength expertise Human Health

Strength of expertise (0–10) in the category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

5.15

2.99

0

10

Strength expertise Social Equality

Strength of expertise (0–10) in the category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

3.85

2.91

0

10

Strength expertise Economy and Livelihoods

Strength of expertise (0–10) in the category.

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

5.27

2.86

0

10

Invitation type

Survey. Möhring et al., 2025

…network and organizations

Selected senior researchers and members of key international organizations in the field of pest management.

223 (43%)

…literature

Invited corresponding author based on literature search of peer reviewed articles in the field of sustainable pest management.

294 (57%)