Fig. 1: Microstructure of PSC Nb2O5 monolith.

a–c XRD pattern, SEM images of exhibiting the crystal structure and morphology. d–f HAADF-STEM and Cs-HRTEM images, along with the elemental mapping and atomic stacking. The blue and gray spheres represent O and Nb atoms, respectively. g–i HS-LEISS, differential charge density map of the top layer at the surface, and XPS results of PSC Nb2O5 monolith. The OI and OIII represent lattice oxygen and adsorbed oxygen, respectively.