Fig. 1: Physical processes and electrical performance in hydrovoltaic conversion under varying temperatures.
From: Molecular clustering unlocks high-performance hydrovoltaics across temperatures from −35 °C to 80 °C
a Physical processes of hydrovoltaic conversion on both macroscopic and microscopic scales, including a microscopic schematic illustrating water molecules interaction with the nano material and ion transport processes at room temperature. b Relationship between the Gibbs free energy of water in different phases and temperature, where the intersection points correspond to the freezing and rapid vaporization temperatures of water. Microscopic illustrations depict hydrovoltaic conversion at corresponding high and low temperatures, demonstrating changes in material structure, the hydrogen-bond network of water molecules, and the ion transport environment. c Schematic representation of ion transport over an expanded temperature range facilitated by the molecular clustering strategy. d Model of composite clusters formed through molecular clustering. Comparison of the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc) between systems incorporating molecular clustering and those using sodium sulfamate (SS) alone. Data are from different experimental subjects and presented as mean ± standard deviation, n = 3. e Comparison of the maximum power density at different temperatures between the hydrovoltaic devices from this study and existing devices (Table S1). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
