Fig. 3: Data writing and reading of nucleic acid data storage.
From: Advances and challenges in non-canonical nucleic acids data storage
a Strategies for strands synthesis through non-enzymatic and enzymatic approaches: i solid-phase synthesis, ii metal-catalyzed ligation, iii polymerase-mediated extension, iv ligase-assisted assembly, and v TdT-mediated synthesis. b Preservation formats: i in vitro storage via solution, powder, silica encapsulation, and fiber embedding; ii in vivo storage through cellular transfection and genomic integration. c Retrieval of stored data: i physical extraction, ii PCR amplification, and iii CRISPR-Cas-based programmable editing. d Readout technologies: i Sanger sequencing, ii next-generation sequencing, iii nanopore sequencing, iv atomic force microscopy, v gel electrophoresis, and vi fluorescence microscopy. In this figure (d) (“Reading”) is reproduced with permission from Li, B. et al., Advanced Materials 37, 2412926 (2025). © 2025 Wiley-VCH GmbH. All graphical elements in this figure were originally created by the authors using Adobe Illustrator.
