Abstract
Wide-bandgap mixed-halide perovskite photovoltaic modules show strong potential for portable chargers, building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, and tandem systems, but large-area processing exacerbates crystallization heterogeneity, surface defects, and halide phase segregation. Conventional spin-coating passivation fails to deliver uniform interfacial control at scale. Here, an industrially inspired solution-soaking quenching technique is introduced, in which hot blade-coated wide-bandgap perovskite films ( ~ 30 cm2) are immersed in cold SrI2/isopropanol. It enables rapid surface reconstruction and uniform surface passivation, enhances photoluminescence uniformity, improves crystallinity, reduces roughness, and stabilizes halides via gradient Sr2+ incorporation. These effects mitigate tensile stress, optimize energy-level alignment, and suppress light-induced phase separation. Methylammonium-free wide-bandgap small-area (0.04 cm2) devices achieve efficiencies up to 22.03%, while a 10.13 cm2 module delivers 20.32% efficiency with excellent operational stability. The method is versatile across wide-bandgap perovskite compositions and enables practical applications including portable chargers, semitransparent modules (18.41% bifacial equivalent efficiency), and >27% efficient all-perovskite tandem windows.
Data availability
All data generated in this study are provided in the main text and Supplementary Information or upon request from the corresponding author.
References
Wang, Y. et al. Homogenized contact in all-perovskite tandems using tailored 2D perovskite. Nature 635, 867–873 (2024).
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Photovoltaic research, best research-cell efficiency chart. https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html (2026).
Yang, M. et al. Chemical synergic stabilization of high Br-content mixed-halide wide-bandgap perovskites for durable multi-terminal tandem solar cells with minimized Pb leakage. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202415966 (2025).
Wang, Z. et al. Regulation of wide bandgap perovskite by rubidium thiocyanate for efficient silicon/perovskite tandem solar cells. Adv. Mater. 36, 2407681 (2024).
Kang, S. et al. Boosting carrier transport in quasi-2D/3D perovskite heterojunction for high-performance perovskite/organic tandems. Adv. Mater. 37, 2411027 (2025).
Scheler, F. et al. Correlation of band bending and ionic losses in 1.68 eV wide band gap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 15, 2404726 (2024).
Wąsiak-Maciejak, A. et al. Compositional and interfacial engineering for improved light stability of flexible wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 13, 7335–7346 (2025).
Feng, W. et al. Blade-coating (100)-oriented α-FAPbI3 perovskite films via crystal surface energy regulation for efficient and stable inverted perovskite photovoltaics. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 63, e202403196 (2024).
Duan, C. et al. Scalable fabrication of wide-bandgap perovskites using green solvents for tandem solar cells. Nat. Energy 10, 318–328 (2025).
Zhao, X. et al. Operationally stable perovskite solar modules enabled by vapor-phase fluoride treatment. Science 385, 433–438 (2024).
Deng, Y. et al. Surfactant-controlled ink drying enables high-speed deposition of perovskite films for efficient photovoltaic modules. Nat. Energy 3, 560–566 (2018).
Huang, C. et al. Meniscus-modulated blade coating enables high-quality α-phase formamidinium lead triiodide crystals and efficient perovskite minimodules. Joule 8, 2539–2553 (2024).
Liu, Q. et al. Enhancing the efficiency and stability of inverted perovskite solar cells and modules through top interface modification with n-type semiconductors. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202416390 (2025).
Wang, H. et al. Impurity-healing interface engineering for efficient perovskite submodules. Nature 634, 1091–1095 (2024).
Zhou, H. et al. Efficient and stable perovskite mini-module via high-quality homogeneous perovskite crystallization and improved interconnect. Nat. Commun. 15, 6679 (2024).
Zhou, S. et al. Aspartate all-in-one doping strategy enables efficient all-perovskite tandems. Nature 624, 69–73 (2023).
Zai, H. et al. Wafer-scale monolayer MoS2 film integration for stable, efficient perovskite solar cells. Science 387, 186–192 (2025).
Azam, M. et al. Tailoring pyridine bridged chalcogen-concave molecules for defects passivation enables efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 602 (2025).
Liu, Z. et al. Reducing perovskite/C60 interface losses via sequential interface engineering for efficient perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell. Adv. Mater. 36, 2308370 (2024).
Jiang, X. et al. Isomeric diammonium passivation for perovskite–organic tandem solar cells. Nature 635, 860–866 (2024).
Wang, C. et al. A wenzel interfaces design for homogeneous solute distribution obtains efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 37, 2417779 (2025).
Yunker, P. J., Still, T., Lohr, M. A. & Yodh, A. G. Suppression of the coffee-ring effect by shape-dependent capillary interactions. Nature 476, 308–311 (2011).
Liao, X. et al. Methylammonium-free, high-efficiency, and stable all-perovskite tandem solar cells enabled by multifunctional rubidium acetate. Nat. Commun. 16, 1164 (2025).
Turren-Cruz, S.-H., Hagfeldt, A. & Saliba, M. Methylammonium-free, high-performance, and stable perovskite solar cells on a planar architecture. Science 362, 449–453 (2018).
Fakharuddin, A. et al. Inorganic and layered perovskites for optoelectronic devices. Adv. Mater. 31, 1807095 (2019).
Sha, H. et al. Probing carrier trapping and hysteresis at perovskite grain boundaries via in situ characterization. Opt. Mater. 139, 113817 (2023).
Ye, C. et al. Activating metal oxides nanocatalysts for electrocatalytic water oxidation by quenching-induced near-surface metal atom functionality. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143, 14169–14177 (2021).
Dong, Q. et al. Programmable heating and quenching for efficient thermochemical synthesis. Nature 605, 470–476 (2022).
Mei, J. & Yan, F. Recent advances in wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Mater. 37, 2418622 (2025).
Kim, K., Moon, T. & Kim, J. Wide bandgap perovskites: a comprehensive review of recent developments and innovations. Small 21, 2407007 (2025).
Li, N. et al. Liquid medium annealing for fabricating durable perovskite solar cells with improved reproducibility. Science 373, 561–567 (2021).
Li, J. et al. Accelerating thermal transfer in perovskite films for high-efficiency and stable photovoltaics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2308036 (2023).
Zheng, Y. et al. Downward homogenized crystallization for inverted wide-bandgap mixed-halide perovskite solar cells with 21% efficiency and suppressed photo-induced halide segregation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2200431 (2022).
Datta, K. et al. Local halide heterogeneity drives surface wrinkling in mixed-halide wide-bandgap perovskites. Nat. Commun. 16, 1967 (2025).
Hoke, E. T. et al. Reversible photo-induced trap formation in mixed-halide hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics. Chem. Sci. 6, 613–617 (2015).
Nie, T. et al. Advances in single-halogen wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35, 2416264 (2025).
Leijtens, T., Bush, K. A., Prasanna, R. & McGehee, M. D. Opportunities and challenges for tandem solar cells using metal halide perovskite semiconductors. Nat. Energy 3, 828–838 (2018).
Belisle, R. A. et al. Impact of surfaces on photoinduced halide segregation in mixed-halide perovskites. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 2694–2700 (2018).
Wu, W.-Q. et al. Reducing surface halide deficiency for efficient and stable iodide-based perovskite solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 3989–3996 (2020).
Lu, Y.-N. et al. Constructing an n/n+ homojunction in a monolithic perovskite film for boosting charge collection in inverted perovskite photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 14, 4048–4058 (2021).
Saidaminov, M. I. et al. Suppression of atomic vacancies via incorporation of isovalent small ions to increase the stability of halide perovskite solar cells in ambient air. Nat. Energy 3, 648–654 (2018).
Shai, X. et al. Efficient planar perovskite solar cells using halide Sr-substituted Pb perovskite. Nano Energy 36, 213–222 (2017).
Zhao, Y. et al. Divalent hard Lewis acid doped CsPbBr3 films for 9.63%-efficiency and ultra-stable all-inorganic perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 7, 6877–6882 (2019).
Li, N. et al. Efficient and stable FA0.95Cs0.05PbI3 single-crystal perovskite solar cells via hierarchical elimination of surface iodide vacancies. ACS Nano 19, 42826–42834 (2025).
Simbula, A. et al. Exciton dissociation in 2D layered metal-halide perovskites. Nat. Commun. 14, 4125 (2023).
Huang, T. et al. Performance-limiting formation dynamics in mixed-halide perovskites. Sci. Adv. 7, eabj1799 (2021).
Chen, Y. et al. Nuclei engineering for even halide distribution in stable perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Science 385, 554–560 (2024).
Qin, M., Chan, P. F. & Lu, X. A systematic review of metal halide perovskite crystallization and film formation mechanism unveiled by in situ GIWAXS. Adv. Mater. 33, 2105290 (2021).
Zhou, Q., Duan, J., Yang, X., Duan, Y. & Tang, Q. Interfacial strain release from the WS2/CsPbBr3 van der waals heterostructure for 1.7 V voltage all-inorganic perovskite solar cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59, 21997–22001 (2020).
Wang, Y. et al. Lattice mismatch at the heterojunction of perovskite solar cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 63, e202405878 (2024).
Chang, X. et al. Two-second-annealed 2D/3D perovskite films with graded energy funnels and toughened heterointerfaces for efficient and durable solar cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 135, e202309292 (2023).
Wang, H. et al. Interfacial residual stress relaxation in perovskite solar cells with improved stability. Adv. Mater. 31, 1904408 (2019).
Muscarella, L. A. & Ehrler, B. The influence of strain on phase stability in mixed-halide perovskites. Joule 6, 2016–2031 (2022).
Wu, L. et al. Resilience pathways for halide perovskite photovoltaics under temperature cycling. Nat. Rev. Mater. 10, 536–549 (2025).
Li, L. et al. In-Situ polymer framework strategy enabling printable and efficient perovskite solar cells by mitigating “coffee ring” effect. Adv. Mater. 36, 2310752 (2024).
Ramirez, C., Yadavalli, S. K., Garces, H. F., Zhou, Y. & Padture, N. P. Thermo-mechanical behavior of organic-inorganic halide perovskites for solar cells. Scr. Mater. 150, 36–41 (2018).
Liu, G. et al. Synergic electron and defect compensation minimizes voltage loss in lead-free perovskite solar cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202305551 (2023).
Zhang, X. et al. Heterostructural CsPbX3-PbS (X = Cl, Br, I) quantum dots with tunable Vis–NIR dual emission. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 4464–4471 (2020).
Zhu, Z. et al. Efficiency enhancement of perovskite solar cells through fast electron extraction: The role of graphene quantum dots. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 3760–3763 (2014).
Hadke, S. et al. Suppressed deep traps and bandgap fluctuations in Cu2CdSnS4 solar cells with ≈8% efficiency. Adv. Energy Mater. 9, 1902509 (2019).
Park, J. et al. Controlled growth of perovskite layers with volatile alkylammonium chlorides. Nature 616, 724–730 (2023).
Liu, N. et al. Particle decoration enables solution-processed perovskite integration with fully-textured silicon for efficient tandem solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 9435 (2025).
Stolterfoht, M. et al. How to quantify the efficiency potential of neat perovskite films: Perovskite semiconductors with an implied efficiency exceeding 28%. Adv. Mater. 32, 2000080 (2020).
Nie, R. et al. Enhanced coordination interaction with multi-site binding ligands for efficient and stable perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 6438 (2025).
Mo, K. et al. Minimizing DMSO residues in perovskite films for efficient and long-term stable solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 15, 2404538 (2025).
Dong, Z. et al. Intermediate phase evolution for stable and oriented evaporated wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells. Nat. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02375-8 (2025).
Tan, Y. et al. Chemical linkage and passivation at buried interface for thermally stable inverted perovskite solar cells with efficiency over 22%. CCS Chem. 5, 1–13 (2022).
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (grant number 2025YFE0106500 to W.-Q.W.), Guangzhou Science and Technology Programme (grant number 2024B03J1227 to W.-Q.W.), the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (grant numbers 2023B1515120008, 2024A1515011571 to W.-Q.W.), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 52472115 to W.-Q.W.).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
W.-Q.W. and Y.F. conceived and designed the research. Y.F. carried out the fabrication and characterization of WBG PSCs and PSMs. J.S. and Y.T. helped to optimize WBG PSCs and PSMs. G.Y. carried out the fabrication and characterization of NBG PSCs and TSCs. Y.F. and H.C. carried out PL Steady-state and temperature-dependent steady-state PL measurements and data analysis. M.G. helped to optimize the semitransparent WBG PSM. Y.F., M.Y., and Y.F. carried out SEM and AFM measurements and data analysis. H.L. carried out GIWAXS measurement and data analysis. J.F. carried out GIXRD measurement and data analysis. C.W., L.Q., J.G., and Z.Y. helped with experimental design and data analysis. Y.F. and W.-Q.W. completed the writing of the manuscript. W.-Q.W. directed and supervised this project. All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Communications thanks Mingkui Wang, Hong Zhang and the other anonymous reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Fang, Y., Sun, J., Tan, Y. et al. Scalable solution soaking quenching technique unlocks efficient and durable wide bandgap perovskite solar modules. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69264-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69264-9
