Fig. 1: Main structures and units of the collision zone.

a Major geological and structural variations with GPS vectors (blue arrows with average values in mm/yr71). IAESA İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan-Sevan-Akera suture zones. Triangles in (a) and (d) are Holocene and Pleistocene volcanoes (Ks Kısır, Ap Arpacay, Ak Akhuryan, Sms Samsari, Ar Ağrı, Arg Aragats, Gh Gegham, Elb Elbrus, Kzb Kazbek, Ke Keli72). The red rectangular shows the modeled area. b Faults, a fold-thrust system with earthquake distributions (global database between 1960 and 2024; http://www.geomapapp.org73). T; Kars-Ağrı-Erzurum provinces (northeastern Türkiye), G; Dzhavakheti- Javakheti provinces (southern Georgia), A; Shamiram-Ghegham provinces (southwest Armenia), E; Eastern, L; Lesser, F; Fault (major units and boundaries are derived from refs. 15,20,74,75,76. c Large-scale variations of seismic data with anisotropy pattern (ref. 31 and references therein). d Vp/Vs ratios for the depth of 100 km (modified from refs. 49,50). Rivers and country borders are shown with blue (a) and white lines (b, d), respectively.