Fig. 3: Universal cryogenic transfer.

a A schematic illustration of the cryogenic transfer mechanism. b Calculated binding energy between Ga₂O₃/Si and Ga₂O₃/Ga interface under different temperatures (298 K, 77 K). c Adhesion forces between Si-LNEP obtained by 90° peeling tests under different temperatures (298 K, 77 K). d Photograph of transferred LNEP on various polymer substrates. e XPS spectra of initial wafer after transfer at different temperatures (298 K, 253 K, 77 K). f Cryogenic transfer to polymer substrates using various liquid metals (Ga, EGaIn, GaInSn) and the yield of the transfer process. g SEM images showing LNEP in the initial state, 100% stretched state, and released state. The percolation pathways were maintained even in the released state. h Comparison of the electrical conductivity of LNEP before and after activation. i, The resistance response of LNEP in PDMS with different widths (30, 50, 250, 400 μm) at the same length of 24 mm and theoretical prediction based on Pouillet’s law. j The resistance responses of LNEP lines in PDMS under 50% and 70% strain during 1000 cycles, with a width of 250 μm and length of 24 mm, showing high long-term stability. The inset graph shows a magnified view of the cyclic test. k The resistance responses of LNEP in various polymers (PDMS, Hydrogel, SEBS, PU, Dragon skin, PI).