Fig. 3: Model-informed design of a biohybrid OstraBot.
From: Fast-swimming biohybrid OstraBot with self-trained high-strength muscles
a Image of the fabricated biohybrid OstraBot. Scale bar, 5 mm. b Mechanical representation of the biohybrid system. c Measured force–deflection relation of the artificial tendon. d Schematic illustration of the physiological processes underlying skeletal muscle force generation in vitro. Image created with BioRender. e Simulated active force–displacement loops in a single contraction-relaxation cycle at 3 Hz stimulation. Tendon stiffness was varied as indicated; shaded area denotes the mechanical work (energy output) per cycle. f Simulated muscle energy output per cycle and per second under different stimulation frequencies, with tendon stiffness fixed at \(k\) = 3.0 N/m. g Heatmap of simulated muscle energy output with different tendon stiffness and stimulation frequency combinations.
