Fig. 4: Long-term performance of BdMI implantation in the rat urinary system for real-time monitoring and intervention.

a Schematic of the long-term experiment showing real-time bladder strain and EMG monitoring, combined with electrical stimulation in a rat model. b Photo of the rat urinary system implanted with BdMI, and c photo of the rat after BdMI implantation with head-mounted interface, where the implanted stretchable strain sensor, EMG monitoring channels, and stimulation channels were connected to a digital multimeter, bioelectrical recording system, and electrical stimulator, respectively, via cranial connectors. A pressure catheter was linked to a syringe pump and pressure sensor through a Ruhr connector for cystometric analysis. Continuous signal recordings on the day of implantation (d) and at day 10 post-implantation (e) show a consistent correlation among intravesical pressure (IBP), resistance changes of the electrode, and bladder filling. Bladder contractions and corresponding IBP increases elicited by electrical stimulation at 3 mA (f) and 5 mA (g) in acute settings. EMG signals recorded during urination events on the day of implantation (h) and at day 28 post-implantation (i). In (f, g), stim. indicates the electrical stimulation. Source data are provided as a Source data file.