Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Advertisement

Nature Communications
  • View all journals
  • Search
  • My Account Login
  • Content Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed
  1. nature
  2. nature communications
  3. review articles
  4. article
Bacterial cellulose as a promising biodegradable bioplastic for sustainability
Download PDF
Download PDF
  • Review Article
  • Open access
  • Published: 25 March 2026

Bacterial cellulose as a promising biodegradable bioplastic for sustainability

  • Yihai Yan1,2,3,4 na1,
  • Lijuan Liu1,2,3 na1,
  • Fan Wang1,2,3 na1 &
  • …
  • Haibo Zhang  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3728-98401,2,3,4 

Nature Communications , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

  • 2126 Accesses

  • 1 Altmetric

  • Metrics details

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Biomaterials
  • Environmental impact
  • Polymers

Abstract

Fossil-based plastics pose significant threats to global ecosystems, driving the need for sustainable bioplastic alternatives. Bacterial cellulose (BC), a biodegradable biopolymer with ultrafine nanoscale network, high water retention, robust mechanical properties and biocompatibility, presents a promising sustainable solution. This review traces the evolution from non-degradable to emerging biodegradable plastics, emphasizing BC’s modification-structure-property relationships, environmental impact, techno-economic analysis and contributions in promoting a circular economy. Furthermore, this review highlights BC’s potential as a bioplastic and discusses its current limitations and viable solutions. Development of BC-based bioplastics opens avenues for addressing the material-energy-environmental challenges faced by sustainable development.

Similar content being viewed by others

Bacterial cellulose production, functionalization, and development of hybrid materials using synthetic biology

Article 14 February 2022

Exploring bacterial cellulose as an engineered living and programmable biomaterial across disciplines through qualitative thematic analysis

Article Open access 23 May 2025

Flow-induced 2D nanomaterials intercalated aligned bacterial cellulose

Article Open access 01 July 2025

Data availability

Data are available in the main text and the supplementary information. All other data are available from the corresponding authors upon request.

References

  1. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J. R. & Law, K. L. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 3, e1700782 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bhagat, J., Zang, L. Q., Nishimura, N. & Shimada, Y. Zebrafish: an emerging model to study microplastic and nanoplastic toxicity. Sci. Total Environ. 728, 138707 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Li, C. et al. Ecology and risks of the global plastisphere as a newly expanding microbial habitat. Innovation 5, 100543 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  4. MacLeod, M., Arp, H. P. H., Tekman, M. B. & Jahnke, A. The global threat from plastic pollution. Science 373, 61–65 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Dogu, O. et al. The chemistry of chemical recycling of solid plastic waste via pyrolysis and gasification: State-of-the-art, challenges, and future directions. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 84, 100901 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Wang, F. et al. Technologies and perspectives for achieving carbon neutrality. Innovation 2, 100180 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Clark, B. L. et al. Global assessment of marine plastic exposure risk for oceanic birds. Nat. Commun. 14, 3665 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Zhang, Y. et al. Plastic waste discharge to the global ocean constrained by seawater observations. Nat. Commun. 14, 1372 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Omura, T. et al. Microbial decomposition of biodegradable plastics on the deep-sea floor. Nat. Commun. 15, 568 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Rangel-Buitrago, N. & Neal, W. J. A geological perspective of plastic pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 893, 164867 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Jambeck, J. R. et al. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 347, 768–771 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Nava, V. et al. Plastic debris in lakes and reservoirs. Nature 619, 317–322 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Pinheiro, H. T. et al. Plastic pollution on the world’s coral reefs. Nature 619, 311–316 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Koelmans, A. A. et al. Risk assessment of microplastic particles. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7, 138–152 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Yang, H. B. et al. Edible, ultrastrong, and microplastic-free bacterial cellulose-based straws by biosynthesis. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2111713 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Choi, S. Y. et al. Sustainable production and degradation of plastics using microbes. Nat. Microbiol. 8, 2253–2276 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Rosenboom, J. G., Langer, R. & Traverso, G. Bioplastics for a circular economy. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7, 117–137 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Tardy, B. L. et al. Deconstruction and reassembly of renewable polymers and biocolloids into next generation structured materials. Chem. Rev. 121, 14088–14188 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Nilsen-Nygaard, J. et al. Current status of biobased and biodegradable food packaging materials: Impact on food quality and effect of innovative processing technologies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 20, 1333–1380 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Rafiqah, S. A. et al. A review on properties and application of bio-based poly(Butylene Succinate). Polymers 13, 1436 (2021).

  21. Jian, J., Xiangbin, Z. & Xianbo, H. An overview on synthesis, properties and applications of poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate)–PBAT. Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 3, 19–26 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Zhang, Y. et al. In situ fermentation of an ultra-strong, microplastic-free, and biodegradable multilayer bacterial cellulose film for food packaging. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 44354–44363 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Liu, Y. et al. A review of carbon nanomaterials/bacterial cellulose composites for nanomedicine applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 323, 121445 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  24. da Silva, C. J. G. et al. Bacterial cellulose biotextiles for the future of sustainable fashion: a review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 19, 2967–2980 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Paes, S. S. et al. The glass transition and crystallization of ball milled cellulose. Cellulose 17, 693–709 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Cazón, P., Velazquez, G. & Vázquez, M. Characterization of mechanical and barrier properties of bacterial cellulose, glycerol and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) composite films with eco-friendly UV-protective properties. Food Hydrocoll. 99, 105323 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Wahid, F. et al. Reusable ternary PVA films containing bacterial cellulose fibers and ε-polylysine with improved mechanical and antibacterial properties. Colloid Surf. B 183, 110486 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Wahid, F. et al. Bacterial cellulose and its potential for biomedical applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 53, 107856 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Choi, S. M., Rao, K. M., Zo, S. M., Shin, E. J. & Han, S. S. Bacterial cellulose and its applications. Polymers 14, 1080 (2022).

  30. Wu, Z. et al. Insights into hierarchical structure–property–application relationships of advanced bacterial cellulose materials. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2214327 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Cacicedo, M. L. et al. Progress in bacterial cellulose matrices for biotechnological applications. Bioresour. Technol. 213, 172–180 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Sperotto, G., Stasiak, L. G., Godoi, J. P. M. G., Gabiatti, N. C. & De Souza, S. S. A review of culture media for bacterial cellulose production: complex, chemically defined and minimal media modulations. Cellulose 28, 2649–2673 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Cazón, P. & Vázquez, M. Improving bacterial cellulose films by ex-situ and in-situ modifications: A review. Food Hydrocoll. 113, 106514 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Islam, M. U., Ullah, M. W., Khan, S., Shah, N. & Park, J. K. Strategies for cost-effective and enhanced production of bacterial cellulose. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 102, 1166–1173 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Matsuoka, M., Tsuchida, T., Matsushita, K., Adachi, O. & Yoshinaga, F. A A Synthetic medium for bacterial cellulose production by Acetobacter xylinum subsp.sucrofermentans. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60, 575–579 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Kuo, C. H., Chen, J. H., Liou, B. K. & Lee, C. K. Utilization of acetate buffer to improve bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. Food Hydrocoll. 53, 98–103 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Watanabe, K., Tabuchi, M., Morinaga, Y. & Yoshinaga, F. Structural features and properties of bacterial cellulose produced in agitated culture. Cellulose 5, 187–200 (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Dudman, W. F. Cellulose production by Acetobacter strains in submerged culture. J. Gen. Microbiol. 22, 25–39 (1960).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Reiniati, I., Hrymak, A. N. & Margaritis, A. Recent developments in the production and applications of bacterial cellulose fibers and nanocrystals. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 37, 510–524 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  40. McKenna, B. A., Mikkelsen, D., Wehr, J. B., Gidley, M. J. & Menzies, N. W. Mechanical and structural properties of native and alkali-treated bacterial cellulose produced by Gluconacetobacter xylinus strain ATCC 53524. Cellulose 16, 1047–1055 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Gea, S. et al. Investigation into the structural, morphological, mechanical and thermal behaviour of bacterial cellulose after a two-step purification process. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 9105–9110 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Gilbert, C. et al. Living materials with programmable functionalities grown from engineered microbial co-cultures. Nat. Mater. 20, 691–700 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Zhang, C. J., Wang, L., Zhao, J. C. & Zhu, P. Effect of drying methods on structure and mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose films. Adv. Mater. Res. -Switz. 239, 2667–2670 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Ul-Islam, M., Khan, T. & Park, J. K. Water holding and release properties of bacterial cellulose obtained by in situ and ex situ modification. Carbohydr. Polym. 88, 596–603 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Iguchi, M., Yamanaka, S. & Budhiono, A. Bacterial cellulose—a masterpiece of nature’s arts. J. Mater. Sci. 35, 261–270 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Foresti, M. L., Vázquez, A. & Boury, B. Applications of bacterial cellulose as precursor of carbon and composites with metal oxide, metal sulfide and metal nanoparticles: A review of recent advances. Carbohydr. Polym. 157, 447–467 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Shao, Y. Z. et al. Harvesting energy from extreme environmental conditions with cellulosic triboelectric materials. Mater. Today 66, 348–370 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Guhados, G., Wan, W. K. & Hutter, J. L. Measurement of the elastic modulus of single bacterial cellulose fibers using atomic force microscopy. Langmuir 21, 6642–6646 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Wang, S. et al. Super-strong, super-stiff macrofibers with aligned, long bacterial cellulose nanofibers. Adv. Mater. 29, 1702498 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Pertile, R. A. et al. Bacterial cellulose: long-term biocompatibility studies. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 23, 1339–1354 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Zahan, K. A. et al. Application of bacterial cellulose film as a biodegradable and antimicrobial packaging material. Mater. Today.: Proc. 31, 83–88 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Chen, S. et al. Depth-related microbial communities and functional genes in alpine permafrost. Innov. Life 2, 100081 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  53. Torgbo, S. & Sukyai, P. Biodegradation and thermal stability of bacterial cellulose as biomaterial: The relevance in biomedical applications. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 179, 109232 (2020).

  54. Butchosa, N. et al. Nanocomposites of bacterial cellulose nanofibers and chitin nanocrystals: fabrication, characterization and bactericidal activity. Green. Chem. 15, 3404–3413 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Jia, Y. Y. et al. Preparation and characterization of a novel bacterial cellulose/chitosan bio-hydrogel. Nanomater. Nanotechnol. 7, 1847980417707172 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Luo, H. L. et al. A novel three-dimensional graphene/bacterial cellulose nanocomposite prepared by biosynthesis. RSC Adv. 4, 14369–14372 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Luo, H. L. et al. Effect of highly dispersed graphene and graphene oxide in 3D nanofibrous bacterial cellulose scaffold on cell responses: A comparative study. Mater. Chem. Phys. 235, 121774 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Ray, D. & Sain, S. In situ processing of cellulose nanocomposites. Compos. Part A-Appl. S. 83, 19–37 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Wu, J. et al. synthesis of silver-nanoparticles/bacterial cellulose composites for slow-released antimicrobial wound dressing. Carbohydr. Polym. 102, 762–771 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Fernandes, I. D. A. et al. Bacterial cellulose: from production optimization to new applications. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 164, 2598–2611 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Gao, M. H. et al. A natural in situ fabrication method of functional bacterial cellulose using a microorganism. Nat. Commun. 10, 437 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  62. Gregory, D. A. et al. Bacterial cellulose: a smart biomaterial with diverse applications. Mat. Sci. Eng. R. 145, 100623 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  63. Zhang, S. H. et al. Oxidized cellulose-based hemostatic materials. Carbohydr. Polym. 230, 115585 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Solomevich, S. O. et al. Fabrication of oxidized bacterial cellulose by nitrogen dioxide in chloroform/cyclohexane as a highly loaded drug carrier for sustained release of cisplatin. Carbohydr. Polym. 248, 116745 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Zhang, N., Zang, G. L., Shi, C., Yu, H. Q. & Sheng, G. P. A novel adsorbent TEMPO-mediated oxidized cellulose nanofibrils modified with PEI: Preparation, characterization, and application for Cu(II) removal. J. Hazard. Mater. 316, 11–18 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  66. Shefa, A. A. et al. Curcumin incorporation into an oxidized cellulose nanofiber-polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel system promotes wound healing. Mater. Des. 186, 108313 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  67. Ullah, M. W. et al. Impact of structural features of acetylated bacterial cellulose on cell-scaffold and scaffold-blood interactions in vitro. Cellulose 30, 10373–10399 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Wang, Y., Luo, Q., Peng, B. & Pei, C. A novel thermotropic liquid crystalline – Benzoylated bacterial cellulose. Carbohydr. Polym. 74, 875–879 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  69. Yin, X. et al. Comparison of succinylation methods for bacterial cellulose and adsorption capacities of bacterial cellulose derivatives for Cu2+ ion. Polym. Bull. 67, 401–412 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  70. Oshima, T., Kondo, K., Ohto, K., Inoue, K. & Baba, Y. Preparation of phosphorylated bacterial cellulose as an adsorbent for metal ions. React. Funct. Polym. 68, 376–383 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  71. Ifuku, S. et al. Surface modification of bacterial cellulose nanofibers for property enhancement of optically transparent composites: Dependence on acetyl-group DS. Biomacromolecules 8, 1973–1978 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wang, Z. Y., Qiao, X. Y. & Sun, K. Rice straw cellulose nanofibrils reinforced poly(vinyl alcohol) composite films. Carbohydr. Polym. 197, 442–450 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  73. Cazón, P., Vázquez, M. & Velazquez, G. Cellulose-glycerol-polyvinyl alcohol composite films for food packaging: Evaluation of water adsorption, mechanical properties, light-barrier properties and transparency. Carbohydr. Polym. 195, 432–443 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  74. Chunshom, N., Chuysinuan, P., Techasakul, S. & Ummartyotin, S. Dried-state bacterial cellulose (Acetobacter xylinum) and polyvinyl-alcohol-based hydrogel: An approach to a personal care material. J. Sci. -Adv. Mater. Dev. 3, 296–302 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  75. Yin, N., Du, R. P., Zhao, F. K., Han, Y. & Zhou, Z. J. Characterization of antibacterial bacterial cellulose composite membranes modified with chitosan or chitooligosaccharide. Carbohydr. Polym. 229, 115520 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  76. Urbina, L. et al. Design of reusable novel membranes based on bacterial cellulose and chitosan for the filtration of copper in wastewaters. Carbohydr. Polym. 193, 362–372 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  77. Velásquez-Cock, J. et al. Influence of the acid type in the production of chitosan films reinforced with bacterial nanocellulose. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 69, 208–213 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  78. Zhijiang, C. & Guang, Y. Bacterial cellulose/collagen composite: characterization and first evaluation of cytocompatibility. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 120, 2938–2944 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  79. Kirdponpattara, S., Khamkeaw, A., Sanchavanakit, N., Pavasant, P. & Phisalaphong, M. Structural modification and characterization of bacterial cellulose–alginate composite scaffolds for tissue engineering. Carbohydr. Polym. 132, 146–155 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  80. Chen, P., Kim, H. S., Kwon, S. M., Yun, Y. S. & Jin, H. J. Regenerated bacterial cellulose/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composite fibers prepared by wet-spinning. Phys. Curr. Appl. Phys. 9, E96–E99 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  81. Shao, W. et al. Preparation of bacterial cellulose/graphene nanosheets composite films with enhanced mechanical performances. Carbohydr. Polym. 138, 166–171 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Wei, X. et al. Photo- and electro-responsive phase change materials based on highly anisotropic microcrystalline cellulose/graphene nanoplatelet structure. Appl. Energ. 236, 70–80 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  83. Feng, Y. Y., Zhang, X. Q., Shen, Y. T., Yoshino, K. & Feng, W. A mechanically strong, flexible and conductive film based on bacterial cellulose/graphene nanocomposite. Carbohydr. Polym. 87, 644–649 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  84. Shao, W., Liu, H., Liu, X. F., Wang, S. X. & Zhang, R. Anti-bacterial performances and biocompatibility of bacterial cellulose/graphene oxide composites. RSC Adv. 5, 4795–4803 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  85. Shi, Z. J., Phillips, G. O. & Yang, G. Nanocellulose electroconductive composites. Nanoscale 5, 3194–3201 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  86. Adepu, S. & Khandelwal, M. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of bacterial cellulose silver nanocomposites with sustained release. J. Mater. Sci. 53, 1596–1609 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  87. Jiji, S. et al. Bacterial cellulose matrix with in situ impregnation of silver nanoparticles via catecholic redox chemistry for third degree burn wound healing. Carbohydr. Polym. 245, 116573 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Chen, M. et al. Bacterial cellulose supported gold nanoparticles with excellent catalytic properties. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 21717–21726 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  89. Zhang, G. et al. Novel piezoelectric paper-based flexible nanogenerators composed of BaTiO3 nanoparticles and bacterial cellulose. Adv. Sci. 3, 1500257 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  90. Shahmohammadi Jebel, F. & Almasi, H. Morphological, physical, antimicrobial and release properties of ZnO nanoparticles-loaded bacterial cellulose films. Carbohydr. Polym. 149, 8–19 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  91. Menchaca-Nal, S. et al. Facile synthesis of cobalt ferrite nanotubes using bacterial nanocellulose as template. Carbohydr. Polym. 137, 726–731 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  92. Chen, S. Y. et al. Polyol mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles templated by bacterial cellulose. Carbohydr. Polym. 92, 1953–1959 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  93. Costa, S. V., Gonçalves, A. S., Zaguete, M. A., Mazon, T. & Nogueira, A. F. ZnO nanostructures directly grown on paper and bacterial cellulose substrates without any surface modification layer. Chem. Commun. (Camb., UK.) 49, 8096–8098 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Bagchi, B. et al. Antimicrobial efficacy and biocompatibility study of copper nanoparticle adsorbed mullite aggregates. Mat. Sci. Eng. C. -Mater. 32, 1897–1905 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Araújo, I. M. S. et al. Hydrothermal synthesis of bacterial cellulose–copper oxide nanocomposites and evaluation of their antimicrobial activity. Carbohydr. Polym. 179, 341–349 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Gilbert, C. & Ellis, T. Biological engineered living materials: growing functional materials with genetically programmable properties. ACS Synth. Biol. 8, 1–15 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  97. Liu, L. et al. Sequential production of secondary metabolites by one operon affects interspecies interactions in Enterobacter sp. CGMCC 5087. Innov. Life 1, 100023 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  98. Jiang, M., Liu, M., Gao, Y. & Zheng, Y. Discovery of a new host for rhizobial symbiont in the ocean. Innov. Life 2, 100077 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  99. Jiang, S., Ma, Y. & Dai, J. Synthetic yeast genome project and beyond. Innov. Life 2, 100059 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  100. Walker, K. T. et al. Self-pigmenting textiles grown from cellulose-producing bacteria with engineered tyrosinase expression. Nat. Biotechnol. 43, 345-354 (2024).

  101. Caro-Astorga, J., Walker, K. T., Herrera, N., Lee, K.-Y. & Ellis, T. Bacterial cellulose spheroids as building blocks for 3D and patterned living materials and for regeneration. Nat. Commun. 12, 5027 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  102. Percival Zhang, Y. H., Himmel, M. E. & Mielenz, J. R. Outlook for cellulase improvement: screening and selection strategies. Biotechnol. Adv. 24, 452–481 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  103. Cazón, P. & Vázquez, M. Bacterial cellulose as a biodegradable food packaging material: a review. Food Hydrocoll. 113, 106530 (2021).

  104. Zhang, M. et al. A highly efficient and durable fluorescent paper produced from bacterial cellulose/Eu complex and cellulosic fibers. Nanomaterials 9, 1322 (2019).

  105. Cárcamo, L. et al. Bacterial nanocellulose mulch as a potential greener alternative for urban gardening in the small-scale food production of onion plants. Agric. Res. 10, 66–71 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  106. Urbina, L. et al. Biodegradable composites with improved barrier properties and transparency from the impregnation of PLA to bacterial cellulose membranes. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 133, 43669 (2016).

  107. Jipa, I. M., Stoica-Guzun, A. & Stroescu, M. Controlled release of sorbic acid from bacterial cellulose based mono and multilayer antimicrobial films. Lwt-Food Sci. Technol. 47, 400–406 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  108. Zhu, H. et al. Characterization of bacteriostatic sausage casing: a composite of bacterial cellulose embedded with ɛ-polylysine. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 19, 1479–1484 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  109. Chen, R. et al. Open roads and bridge: Preservation of fresh beef by a packaging film constructed from photosensitizing bacterial cellulose. Food Chem. 437, 137789 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  110. Xu, Y. et al. Development and properties of bacterial cellulose, curcumin, and chitosan composite biodegradable films for active packaging materials. Carbohydr. Polym. 260, 117778 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  111. Muralidharan, V., Jebathomas, C. R. T., Sundaramoorthy, S., Madhan, B. & Palanivel, S. Preparation and evaluation of novel biodegradable Kombucha cellulose-based multi-layered composite tableware. Ind. Crops Prod. 215, 118629 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  112. Niu, S. et al. Mechanically strong, hydrostable, and biodegradable starch–cellulose composite materials for tableware. Starch - Stärke 74, 2200019 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  113. Wang, L. et al. Fabrication and characterization of transparent and uniform cellulose/polyethylene composite films from used disposable paper cups by the “one-pot method”. Polymers 14, 1070 (2022).

  114. Campano, C., Merayo, N., Negro, C. & Blanco, Á Low-fibrillated bacterial cellulose nanofibers as a sustainable additive to enhance recycled paper quality. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 114, 1077–1083 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  115. Huang, L. et al. Bacterial cellulose nanofibers promote stress and fidelity of 3D-printed silk based hydrogel scaffold with hierarchical pores. Carbohydr. Polym. 221, 146–156 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  116. Zhang, Y.-L. et al. Electro-responsive actuators based on graphene. Innovation 2, 100168 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  117. Akki, A. J. et al. Microbial biotechnology alchemy: transforming bacterial cellulose into sensing disease- a review. Sens. Int. 5, 100277 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  118. Zhou, X. et al. Layer-by-layer engineered silicon-based sandwich nanomat as flexible anode for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 39970–39978 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  119. Chen, G. Q. et al. Enhancing thermal conductivity and chemical protection of bacterial cellulose/silver nanowires thin-film for high flexible electronic skin. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 229, 422–431 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  120. Zhang, T. et al. Biotemplated synthesis of gold nanoparticle–bacteria cellulose nanofiber nanocomposites and their application in biosensing. Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 1152–1160 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  121. Wang, W. B. et al. High-performance yarn supercapacitor based on directly twisted carbon nanotube@bacterial cellulose membrane. Cellulose 27, 7649–7661 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  122. Legnani, C. et al. Bacterial cellulose membrane as flexible substrate for organic light emitting devices. Thin Solid Films 517, 1016–1020 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  123. Badshah, M. et al. Surface modification and evaluation of bacterial cellulose for drug delivery. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 113, 526–533 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  124. Zhang, H. L., Wang, J., Wang, K. R. & Xu, L. H. A bilayered PLGA/multiwall carbon nanotubes/bacterial cellulose composite membrane for tissue regeneration of maxillary canine periodontal bone defects. Mater. Lett. 212, 118–121 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  125. Zang, S. S. et al. Investigation on artificial blood vessels prepared from bacterial cellulose. Mat. Sci. Eng. C. -Mater. 46, 111–117 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ahmed, J., Gultekinoglu, M. & Edirisinghe, M. Bacterial cellulose micro-nano fibres for wound healing applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 41, 107549 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  127. Wang, J., Wan, Y. Z., Luo, H. L., Gao, C. & Huang, Y. Immobilization of gelatin on bacterial cellulose nanofibers surface via crosslinking technique. Mat. Sci. Eng. C. -Mater. 32, 536–541 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  128. Moraes, P. R. F. D. et al. Bacterial cellulose/collagen hydrogel for wound healing. Mater. Res. -Ibero-Am. J. 19, 106–116 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  129. Lin, N. & Dufresne, A. Nanocellulose in biomedicine: current status and future prospect. Eur. Polym. J. 59, 302–325 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  130. Saberi Riseh, R. Advancing agriculture through bioresource technology: the role of cellulose-based biodegradable mulches. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 255, 128006 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  131. Mbituyimana, B. et al. Bacterial cellulose/glycolic acid/glycerol composite membrane as a system to deliver glycolic acid for anti-aging treatment. J. Bioresour. Bioprod. 6, 129–141 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  132. He, X. X. et al. Cellulose and cellulose derivatives: different colloidal states and food-related applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 255, 117334 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  133. Fernandes, M., Gama, M., Dourado, F. & Souto, A. P. Development of novel bacterial cellulose composites for the textile and shoe industry. Microb. Biotechnol. 12, 650–661 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  134. García, C. & Prieto, M. A. Bacterial cellulose as a potential bioleather substitute for the footwear industry. Microb. Biotechnol. 12, 582–585 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  135. Jemec, A., Horvat, P., Kunej, U., Bele, M. & Krzan, A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean. Environ. Pollut. 219, 201–209 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  136. Parajuli, P., Acharya, S., Rumi, S. S., Hossain, M. T. & Abidi, N. in Fundamentals of Natural Fibres and Textiles. (ed. M.I.H. Mondal) 87-110 (Woodhead Publishing, 2021).

  137. Xia, Q. et al. A strong, biodegradable and recyclable lignocellulosic bioplastic. Nat. Sustain. 4, 627–635 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  138. Gontard, N., David, G., Guilbert, A. & Sohn, J. Recognizing the long-term impacts of plastic particles for preventing distortion in decision-making. Nat. Sustainability 5, 472–478 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  139. Schwarz, A. E. et al. Plastic recycling in a circular economy; determining environmental performance through an LCA matrix model approach. Waste Manag. 121, 331–342 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  140. GreenDelta (https://OpenLCA.org; 2024).

  141. “Global Warming Potential (GWP) – LCA Measure Details” https://calculatelca.com/static-content/software/impact-estimator/help-files/introduction/summary_measure_details_global_warming_potential.html. (2017).

  142. Forte, A. et al. Life cycle assessment of bacterial cellulose production. Int. J. Life Cycle Ass. 26, 864–878 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  143. Lee, S. et al. Life cycle assessment of aPHA production. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12, 72–84 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  144. Wang, F. et al. Tobacco as a promising crop for low-carbon biorefinery. Innovation 5, 100687 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  145. Banerjee, R. & Ray, S. S. Sustainability and life cycle assessment of thermoplastic polymers for packaging: A review on fundamental principles and applications. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 307, 2100794 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  146. Cortes-Peña, Y., Kumar, D., Singh, V. & Guest, J. S. BioSTEAM: A fast and flexible platform for the design, simulation, and techno-economic analysis of biorefineries under uncertainty. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 3302–3310 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  147. Zhong, C. Industrial-scale production and applications of bacterial cellulose. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 8, 605374 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  148. Liu, L., Wang, F., Wang, L., Jiang, X. & Zhang, H. Addressing challenges in microbial manufacturing: Systematic microbial biotechnology. Innovation 6, 100871 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  149. Wang, G.-X., Huang, D., Ji, J.-H., Völker, C. & Wurm, F. R. Seawater-degradable polymers—fighting the marine plastic pollution. Adv. Sci. 8, 2001121 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  150. Weng, Y. X. et al. Biodegradation behavior of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), poly(lactic acid) (PLA), and their blend under soil conditions. Polym. Test. 32, 918–926 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  151. Karan, H., Funk, C., Grabert, M., Oey, M. & Hankamer, B. Green bioplastics as part of a circular bioeconomy. Trends Plant Sci. 24, 237–249 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  152. Aversa, C., Barletta, M., Cappiello, G. & Gisario, A. Compatibilization strategies and analysis of morphological features of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/poly(lactic acid) PLA blends: a state-of-art review. Eur. Polym. J. 173, 111304 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  153. Zhao, X., Cornish, K. & Vodovotz, Y. Narrowing the gap for bioplastic use in food packaging: an update. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54, 4712–4732 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  154. França, D. C. et al. Tailoring PBAT/PLA/Babassu films for suitability of agriculture mulch application. J. Nat. Fibers 16, 933–943 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  155. Ferreira, F. V., Cividanes, L. S., Gouveia, R. F. & Lona, L. M. F. An overview on properties and applications of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)–PBAT based composites. Polym. Eng. Sci. 59, E7–E15 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  156. Rajgond, V., Mohite, A., More, N. & More, A. Biodegradable polyester-polybutylene succinate (PBS): a review. Polym. Bull. 81, 5703–5752 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  157. Li-ping, C. et al. Research progress of modification of polybutylene succinate in China. Prog. Text. Sci. Technol. 12, 11 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  158. Rova, L., Gallet-Pandellé, A., Wang, Z., Kurita, H. & Narita, F. Japanese washi-paper-based green composites: Fabrication, mechanical characterization, and evaluation of biodegradability. Compos. Part A-Appl. S. 184, 108261 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  159. Tretinnikov, O. N. & Zagorskaya, S. A. Determination of the degree of crystallinity of poly(vinyl alcohol) by FTIR spectroscopy. J. Appl. Spectrosc. 79, 521–526 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  160. Ye, D. Z., Jiang, L., Hu, X. Q., Zhang, M. H. & Zhang, X. Lignosulfonate as reinforcement in polyvinyl alcohol film: mechanical properties and interaction analysis. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 83, 209–215 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  161. Sau, S., Pandit, S. & Kundu, S. Crosslinked poly (vinyl alcohol): structural, optical and mechanical properties. Surf. Interfaces 25, 101198 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  162. Peelman, N. et al. Heat resistance of new biobased polymeric materials, focusing on starch, cellulose, PLA, and PHA. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 132, 42305 (2015).

  163. Szcześniak, L., Rachocki, A. & Tritt-Goc, J. Glass transition temperature and thermal decomposition of cellulose powder. Cellulose 15, 445–451 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  164. Nagamine, R., Kobayashi, K., Kusumi, R. & Wada, M. Cellulose fiber biodegradation in natural waters: river water, brackish water, and seawater. Cellulose 29, 2917–2926 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  165. Li, T. et al. Developing fibrillated cellulose as a sustainable technological material. Nature 590, 47–56 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  166. Schröpfer, S. B. et al. Biodegradation evaluation of bacterial cellulose, vegetable cellulose and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) in soil. Pol.ímeros 25, 154–160 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  167. Bootklad, M. & Kaewtatip, K. Biodegradation of thermoplastic starch/eggshell powder composites. Carbohydr. Polym. 97, 315–320 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  168. Dome, K., Podgorbunskikh, E., Bychkov, A. & Lomovsky, O. Changes in the crystallinity degree of starch having different types of crystal structure after mechanical pretreatment. Polymers 12, 641 (2020).

  169. Lamberti, F. M., Román-Ramírez, L. A. & Wood, J. Recycling of bioplastics: routes and benefits. J. Polym. Environ. 28, 2551–2571 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  170. Meereboer, K. W., Misra, M. & Mohanty, A. K. Review of recent advances in the biodegradability of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) bioplastics and their composites. Green. Chem. 22, 5519–5558 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  171. Nakajima, H., Dijkstra, P. & Loos, K. The recent developments in biobased polymers toward general and engineering applications: polymers that are upgraded from biodegradable polymers, analogous to petroleum-derived polymers, and newly developed. Polymers 9, 523 (2017).

  172. Adak, S., Kayalvizhi, R., Bishai, M., Jacob, S. & Kundu, D. Advancements in microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) from wastes for sustainable active food packaging: an eclectic review. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 60, 103288 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  173. Jeon, J. H., Oh, I. K., Kee, C. D. & Kim, S. J. Bacterial cellulose actuator with electrically driven bending deformation in hydrated condition. Sens. Actuat. B-Chem. 146, 307–313 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  174. Cennamo, N. et al. Green LSPR Sensors based on thin bacterial cellulose waveguides for disposable biosensor implementation. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 70, 1–8 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  175. Tajima, K. et al. Detailed structural analyses of nanofibrillated bacterial cellulose and its application as binder material for a display device. Biomacromolecules 21, 581–588 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  176. Laçin, N. T. Development of biodegradable antibacterial cellulose based hydrogel membranes for wound healing. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 67, 22–27 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  177. Bilgi, E. et al. Bacterial cellulose based facial mask with antioxidant property and high moisturizing capacity. Cellulose 28, 10399–10414 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge financial support from National Natural Science Foundation of China [number U24A20478, grant to H.Z., 32170084, grant to H.Z.], Taishan Scholars [number tstp20250542, grant to H.Z.].

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Yihai Yan, Lijuan Liu, Fan Wang.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China

    Yihai Yan, Lijuan Liu, Fan Wang & Haibo Zhang

  2. Shandong Energy Institute, Qingdao, China

    Yihai Yan, Lijuan Liu, Fan Wang & Haibo Zhang

  3. Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, Qingdao, China

    Yihai Yan, Lijuan Liu, Fan Wang & Haibo Zhang

  4. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Yihai Yan & Haibo Zhang

Authors
  1. Yihai Yan
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lijuan Liu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fan Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Haibo Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Y.Y. and L.L. collected the information, wrote the paper, made all figures and tables except Fig. 6. F.W. calculated the LCA and made Fig. 6. H.Z. provided suggestions for the figures and tables, and revised the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Haibo Zhang.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Communications thanks Jan-Georg Rosenboom, Claire Barlow, Muhammad Rahman, David Alexander Gregory, who co-reviewed with Mahendra Raut, and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information (download PDF )

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Yan, Y., Liu, L., Wang, F. et al. Bacterial cellulose as a promising biodegradable bioplastic for sustainability. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71025-7

Download citation

  • Received: 07 September 2024

  • Accepted: 10 March 2026

  • Published: 25 March 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71025-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Download PDF

Advertisement

Explore content

  • Research articles
  • Reviews & Analysis
  • News & Comment
  • Videos
  • Collections
  • Subjects
  • Follow us on Facebook
  • Follow us on X
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed

About the journal

  • Aims & Scope
  • Editors
  • Journal Information
  • Open Access Fees and Funding
  • Calls for Papers
  • Editorial Values Statement
  • Journal Metrics
  • Editors' Highlights
  • Contact
  • Editorial policies
  • Top Articles

Publish with us

  • For authors
  • For Reviewers
  • Language editing services
  • Open access funding
  • Submit manuscript

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Find a job
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Nature Communications (Nat Commun)

ISSN 2041-1723 (online)

nature.com footer links

About Nature Portfolio

  • About us
  • Press releases
  • Press office
  • Contact us

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Articles by subject
  • protocols.io
  • Nature Index

Publishing policies

  • Nature portfolio policies
  • Open access

Author & Researcher services

  • Reprints & permissions
  • Research data
  • Language editing
  • Scientific editing
  • Nature Masterclasses
  • Research Solutions

Libraries & institutions

  • Librarian service & tools
  • Librarian portal
  • Open research
  • Recommend to library

Advertising & partnerships

  • Advertising
  • Partnerships & Services
  • Media kits
  • Branded content

Professional development

  • Nature Awards
  • Nature Careers
  • Nature Conferences

Regional websites

  • Nature Africa
  • Nature China
  • Nature India
  • Nature Japan
  • Nature Middle East
  • Privacy Policy
  • Use of cookies
  • Legal notice
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms & Conditions
  • Your US state privacy rights
Springer Nature

© 2026 Springer Nature Limited

Nature Briefing: Translational Research

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter — top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma.

Get what matters in translational research, free to your inbox weekly. Sign up for Nature Briefing: Translational Research