Table 1 Overview of individual differences affecting entrainment in healthy populations
Author (Year) | Country | N | Mean Age | Trait(s) | Stimulation (Hz) | Outcome Measures | Key Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lorenzini et al.91 | France | 45 | 3 months for the 3-month-old infants, 9 months 22 days for the 10-month-old infants, 23.2 years for the young adults | Age | 8, 40 | AMFR, SNR | Adults showed consistent AMFR at 40 Hz, infants showed almost no response |
Arutiunian et al.78 | Russia | 30 | 9.1 | Age | 40 | ITPC, ERF amplitude (MEG) | ITCP increased with age. ERF amplitude decreased with age. Stronger ITPC was associated with lower ERF amplitude |
Ross & Fujioka 93 | Canada | 24 | Younger adults: 23.1 Older adults: 67.8 | Age | 40 | Amplitude, temporal dynamics (MEG) | In quiet conditions, younger participants exhibited a larger 40-Hz response, while under noise masking, amplitudes were similar. Older adults showed delayed recovery in 40-Hz oscillations following stimulus gaps |
Cho et al.82 | USA | 181 | 14.5 | Age | 20, 30, 40 | Power, PLF, CFC | Power, PLF, and CFC increased with age from 8 to 16 y and decreased from 20 to 22 y for 40 Hz. All measures remained flat or decreased for 20 and 30 Hz from childhood to early adulthood |
Griškova-Bulanova et al.71 | Lithuania | 46 | Not reported. Range: 20-58 | Age | 40 | PLI, amplitude, total intensity | PLI and evoked amplitude diminished linearly with age, no effect of age on total intensity |
Johnson et al.83 | Canada | 12 | 38 (younger), 69.6 (older) | Age | 40 | Phase, amplitude | No differences found between age groups |
Rojas et al.86 | USA | 69 | 25.62 | Age, sex | Not specified | Power, amplitude (MEG) | Peak response at 40 Hz, no age-related shift in peak frequency (all around 39.8 Hz). Power increased with age, stabilising in early adulthood, with no sex differences. Variability in amplitude increased with age |
Roth et al.92 | USA | 8 | Range: 21-40 | Attention | 40 | SNR | 40-Hz response increased when difficulty of task decreased, and in passive condition when concentrating on auditory stimuli |
Griškova-Bulanova et al.85 | Lithuania | 27 | 23.2 | Attention | 40 | GFS | Global synchronisation weakened with distraction from stimulation |
Alegre et al.80 | Spain | 12 | 27.6 | Attention | 1-120 | ITC, energy | 40-Hz response showed no effect of attention. Reduced attention was associated with reduced energy in the 80-120 Hz range with no effects on ITC |
Herdman 90 | Canada | 20 | Children: 12 Adults: 22 | Attention, age | 40 | Amplitude | Attention significantly enhanced the 40-Hz ASSR in adults only, not children |
Skosnik et al.81 | USA | 46 | 21.35 | Chronic cannabis use | 10 - 50 in increments of 5 | Power, ITC | Reduced 40-Hz power in cannabis users, no differences in ITC |
Toso et al.87 | Germany | 20 | 28 | Cortical excitation (via NMDA) and inhibition (via GABA) | 40 | Total power, PLP | Enhancing GABAergic transmission with lorazepam increased strength of 40-Hz ASSR, blocking NMDA receptors with memantine had no effect on the sustained response |
Schuler et al.75 | Italy | 52 | 29.5 | Cortical thickness | 40 | ITPC, PLV | ITPC and PLV showed significant positive correlation with cortical thickness measured by MRI |
Larsen et al.76 | Australia | 45 | 21.32 | Degree of myelination in grey matter | 40 | PLV, power | Increased myelin content in the right cerebellum was associated with better phase-locking of 40-Hz ASSR. This was specific for PLV and not power |
Zhang et al.88 | China | 24 | 22.96 | Emotional arousal | 40 | PtP amplitude, ERSP | Stronger ASSR in positive emotional state compared to neutral or negative |
Melynyte et al.72 | Lithuania | 44 | 22.5 | Gender, handedness | 40 | PLI, ERSP | Reduced phase-locking and strength of 40-Hz ASSRs in left-handed females compared to right-handed females and left-handed males |
Horwitz et al.89 | Denmark | 40 | 62.02 | Intelligence | 40 (auditory), 36 (visual) | Gamma power difference between visual and auditory conditions | No significant association between intelligence and auditory response to 40 Hz |
Horwitz et al.94 | Denmark | 40 | 62.02 | Long-term memory capacity | 40 (auditory), 36 (visual) | Gamma coherence difference between visual and auditory conditions | No significant association between long-term memory and auditory response to 40 Hz |
Griškova-Bulanova et al.73 | Lithuania | 28 | 20.68 | Menstrual cycle phase | 40 | PLI, amplitude, total intensity | PLI was highest in late follicular phase, lowest in mid-luteal phase. Amplitude was largest during late follicular phase, smallest in mid-luteal phase, as was total intensity |
Zhang et al.77 | China | 28 | 20.7 | Musical training | 40 | AEP, PLV | Musicians showed larger steady-state PLVs at high frequencies (40-60 Hz) and lower PLVs at low frequencies (1-20 Hz) compared to non-musicians |
Bosnyak et al.84 | Canada | 8 | 27.5 | Musical training | 40 | Phase, amplitude | Small effect of training on ASSR phase with no significant change to amplitude |
Griškova-Bulanova et al.74 | Lithuania | 70 | 26.07 | Processing speed and inhibitory control | 30-60 in increments of 1 | PLI, ERSP | Faster reaction times correlated with better gamma synchronisation (higher PLI and ERSP values), at 40 Hz and particularly at individual gamma frequencies, no difference for inhibition |
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Author (Year) | Country | N | Mean Age | Group | Stimulation (Hz) | Outcome Measures | Key Findings |
De Stefano et al.79 | USA | 30 | 13.3 | ASD, age | 1-100 | ITPC, STP | Participants with ASD showed lower ITPC in the 27-39 Hz range than controls in the older but not younger group. ITPC increased with age in typically developing participants but decreased in those with ASD. Adults with ASD showed greater STP in the 20-50 Hz range but no differences were seen in younger group. STP decreased with age in typically developing group but remained constant in ASD group |
Seymour et al.96 | UK | 36 | 16.78 | ASD | Auditory and visual, Hz not specified | Power, ITC | Reduced 40-Hz ASSR power and inter-trial coherence in individuals with autism |
Granados Barbero et al.97 | Belgium | 54 | 14.71 | Dyslexia | 4, 10, 20, 40 | SNR, PC | Group with dyslexia showed higher phase coherence and SNR in all frequencies |
Lizarazu et al.95 | France | 39 | Not reported. Range: 19-40.7 | Dyslexia | 2, 5, 30 | SNR, PLV, IHPS, coherence | Controls demonstrated larger responses to non-speech gamma stimuli in left hemisphere. Failed to replicate other significant group differences from previous research |
Wilson et al.98 | USA | 25 | 42.25 | ADHD | 40 | Amplitude (MEG) | Gamma activity was weaker in ADHD group in the pre-medication, but not the post-medication, condition |
