Extended Data Fig. 1: Drivers of individual cultural, aboveground regulating and provisioning, and belowground regulating ecosystem services in grasslands.

Total standardized effects were calculated based on the results of structural equation models (considering both direct and indirect effects of the predictors) for each predictor: environmental factors, plot-level (50 m × 50 m) plant diversity, field-level (75 m radius from the plot centre) plant diversity, field-level (75 m radius from the plot centre) land use, and landscape-level (1,000 m radius from the plot centre) land use. The total standardized effects correspond to the sum of standardized direct effects (that is individual paths) and indirect effects (that is the multiplied paths). All predictors were scaled to allow interpretation of parameter estimates on a comparable scale. Plot-level and landscape-level predictors were log-transformed. n = 150 biologically independent samples for birdwatching potential, forage quality, nitrogen retention index, potential nitrification, groundwater recharge; n = 147 biologically independent samples for lack of herbivory; n = 146 biologically independent samples for soil carbon stocks; n = 142 biologically independent samples for dung decomposition, lack of pathogen infection and shoot biomass; n = 136 biologically independent samples for phosphorus retention index; n = 119 biologically independent samples for pollination; n = 114 biologically independent samples for acoustic diversity; n = 93 biologically independent samples for soil aggregation; n = 83 biologically independent samples for the natural enemy abundance; n = 70 biologically independent samples for the total flower cover.