Fig. 2: Gains in primary ecosystem regulating services and wildlife habitat due to ecosystem protection and restoration were undercut by reclamation for cropland across China from 2000 to 2015.

a–f, Blue indicates gains from ecosystem protection and restoration, and red indicates losses from reclamation for cropland. a, Total gains and losses for the whole country. b–f, Rosette diagrams of five clusters of reclamation-induced ecosystem service losses at the provincial level. b, the first cluster, representing areas experienced the largest loss of restoration gains in ecosystem services; c, the second cluster, representing areas providing a large supply of carbon sequestration, wildlife habitat and high grain yield, but that experienced large losses in biodiversity and ecosystem services; d, the third cluster, representing areas providing high ecosystem regulating services and biodiversity, with a humid climate and high slopes for newly reclaimed land, experienced large losses of ecosystem services; e, the fourth cluster, representing areas underwent relatively low loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services due to ecological restoration, with a humid climate; f, the fifth cluster, representing areas underwent low loss of biodiversity and ecosystem service. The histogram below each rosette summarizes gains and losses for each cluster. WH, proportion of wildlife habitat; WR, capacity for water retention; SP, capacity for sandstorm prevention; CS, capacity for carbon sequestration; SR, capacity for soil retention; RWH, reduction in wildlife habitat due to reclamation; RWR, reduction in water retention due to reclamation; RSP, reduction in sandstorm prevention due to reclamation; RCS, reduction in carbon sequestration due to reclamation; RSR, reduction in soil retention due to reclamation; GY, grain yield; CRA, area of reclamation for cropland; PRE, annual precipitation; SL, average slope; SOM, soil organic matter content.