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Emerging opportunities for high-temperature solid-state and gas-cycle heat pumps

Nature Energy volume 10, pages 1412–1426 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Industrial-sector decarbonization requires the adoption of energy-efficient heating technologies such as heat pumps. Among these, vapour compression is the most efficient method. However, its refrigerants pose environmental and safety concerns and preclude heat-pump operation above 600 K. Many industrial processes operating above this temperature use fossil fuels or resistive electrical heating, which generate a substantial amount of unused waste heat. It is therefore essential to develop technologies that efficiently recover and pump heat at such high temperatures. In this Review, we highlight the opportunities and challenges for emerging and environmentally friendly high-temperature heat-pump technologies based on solids or gases. These technologies have the potential to deliver heat at temperatures up to 1,600 K. We provide an outlook on potential solutions, applications and scalability and a roadmap for future technological progress.

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Fig. 1: Statistical data on global energy consumption and waste heat, and illustrative example of a high-temperature heat-pump energy chain.
Fig. 2: The most common thermodynamic cycles of the technologies evaluated in this Review.
Fig. 3: Comparison of the material properties of solid-state heat-pump technologies.
Fig. 4: Overview and comparison of the evaluated technologies.
Fig. 5: Research roadmap for the future development of solid-state and gas-cycle high-temperature heat pumps.
Fig. 6: Illustration of potential applications for solid-state and gas-cycle high-temperature heat pumps.
Fig. 7: Proposed extended classification based on the temperature levels and heat source/sink media used in heat pumps.

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Acknowledgements

A.K. and K.K. acknowledge the support of the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency for the Limited angle PET system project J7-50229 (D) and research core funding P2-0223. M.M.R. acknowledges national project MXENE2DEVICES (PID2023-149764OA-I00) and the Severo Ochoa Centres of Excellence program through Grant CEX2024-001445-S. E.L., R.Y. and K.L. acknowledge financial support from the NSFC, CAS and MOST of China, which are related to heat-pump technology projects. X.M. acknowledges support from the UK EPSRC grant EP/V042262/1, the ERC starting grant 680032 and the Royal Society. We thank S. Djordjević for his artwork.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

    Andrej Kitanovski & Katja Klinar

  2. Key Laboratory of Cryogenic Science and Technology, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Ercang Luo & Rui Yang

  3. 2D Foundry, Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid (ICMM), CSIC, Madrid, Spain

    Miguel Muñoz Rojo

  4. Department of Thermal and Fluid Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

    Miguel Muñoz Rojo

  5. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

    Vladimir Soldo & Luka Boban

  6. State Key Laboratory of Multi-Phase Complex Systems, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Kaiqi Luo

  7. Department of Materials Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    Xavier Moya

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Contributions

A.K.: conceptualization, methodology, original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, investigation, resources, visualization, funding acquisition. K.K.: original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, investigation, methodology, visualization, funding acquisition. E.L.: original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, methodology, funding acquisition. M.M.R.: original draft preparation, methodology, writing—reviewing and editing, funding acquisition. V.S.: original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, methodology, funding acquisition. L.B.: original draft preparation, methodology, writing—reviewing and editing, funding acquisition. K.L.: original draft preparation, methodology, writing—reviewing and editing, funding acquisition. R.Y.: original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, methodology, funding acquisition. X.M.: original draft preparation, methodology, writing—reviewing and editing, funding acquisition.

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Correspondence to Andrej Kitanovski, Ercang Luo, Miguel Muñoz Rojo, Vladimir Soldo or Xavier Moya.

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Kitanovski, A., Klinar, K., Luo, E. et al. Emerging opportunities for high-temperature solid-state and gas-cycle heat pumps. Nat Energy 10, 1412–1426 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01908-4

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