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Amorphous grain boundary engineering for scalable flexible perovskite photovoltaics with improved stability

Nature Energy (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Flexible perovskite solar cells hold promises for lightweight photovoltaics, yet their performance, durability and scalability lag behind rigid counterparts. Conventional efficiency-enhancing strategies, such as grain enlargement or lead iodide passivation, often degrade mechanical robustness. Here we combine data-driven machine learning with a passivation approach to overcome this trade-off. We design β-cyclodextrin derivatives that form in situ self-assembled amorphous grain boundaries, enhancing optoelectronic properties and mechanical resilience through coordination bonds, hydrogen bonds and host–guest interactions. We achieve flexible solar cells with an efficiency of 24.52% and enhanced durability: 92.5% efficiency retention after 10,000 bending cycles, 95% after 300 days in ambient air and 80% under 650 h of maximum power point tracking. We demonstrate modules with certified efficiencies of 21.09% (aperture area: 21.07 cm2) and 17.38% (aperture area: 0.5 m2, 86.9 W). Larger-area module (aperture area: 1.4725 m2) delivers 226 W power output and power per weight of 558 W kg−1. Our work addresses critical barriers in flexible perovskite photovoltaics.

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Fig. 1: Impact of β-Cyclodextrin derivatives on flexible perovskite thin film.
Fig. 2: Amorphous grain boundary-based perovskite crystallization dynamics.
Fig. 3: Evaluation of the durability and photovoltaic performances of flexible perovskite solar cells.
Fig. 4: Fabrication of large-area flexible perovskite module and its photovoltaic performances.
Fig. 5: Photovoltaic performances of the large-area flexible perovskite module.

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The data that support the findings of this study are available within the article and its Supplementary Information. Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (62475103,62005099), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2021B1515120003). We sincerely thank our colleagues, Y. Deng from Chongqing University and R. Chen from Hubei University of Technology, for their valuable suggestions.

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Mingzhu He, Yujiao Ma.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of New Energy Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

    Mingzhu He, Yujiao Ma, Shaohang Wu, Huilin Tan, Dong Wenlong, Liang Liu, Haoyang Zhang, Zexing Zhuang, Yin Gao, Yifan Jiao, Hongliang Liu, Maoyuan Wu, Chong Liu, Jiandong Fan & Yaohua Mai

  2. Key Laboratory of New Semiconductors and Devices of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

    Mingzhu He, Yujiao Ma, Shaohang Wu, Huilin Tan, Dong Wenlong, Liang Liu, Haoyang Zhang, Zexing Zhuang, Yin Gao, Yifan Jiao, Hongliang Liu, Maoyuan Wu, Chong Liu, Jiandong Fan & Yaohua Mai

  3. Guangdong Mellow Energy Co. Ltd., Zhuhai, China

    Shaohang Wu, Yanyan Gao, Cuiling Zhang, Chong Liu, Jiandong Fan & Yaohua Mai

  4. State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

    Liyuan Han

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Contributions

S.W., J.F., L.H. and Y. Mai conceived the idea for the manuscript and designed the experiments. M.H., Y. Ma, L.L., H.Z., Y.J. Z.Z., W.M. and H.T. conducted sample preparation, device fabrication, optimization and characterization. Y. Ma conducted the in situ XRD and photoluminescence measurements. W.D. and J.F. performed the machine learning and calculations. M.H., H.L., H.T., Yanyan Gao, Yin Gao, C.Z. and C.L. assisted with solar cell and module fabrication and characterizations. M.H. and Y. Ma wrote the manuscript. S.W. and J.F. revised the manuscript. S.W., J.F., L.H. and Y. Mai led the project. All authors were involved in discussions of data analysis and commented on the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Shaohang Wu, Liyuan Han, Jiandong Fan or Yaohua Mai.

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Supplementary text, Figs. 1–35 and Tables 1–7.

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Supplementary Data

Molecular structure of A\B\C.

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He, M., Ma, Y., Wu, S. et al. Amorphous grain boundary engineering for scalable flexible perovskite photovoltaics with improved stability. Nat Energy (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01932-4

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