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Mitigating lead toxicity towards safer commercialization of perovskite solar cells

Nature Energy (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as transformative photovoltaic technologies due to their high efficiency and low cost. However, the presence of lead raises environmental and health concerns, posing a barrier to commercialization. This Review quantifies the toxicity risks associated with lead in PSCs and underscores the need for effective mitigation strategies. We discuss the long-term effectiveness of lead isolation and immobilization approaches by introducing quantitative metrics, specifically the sequestration efficiency and lifetime. We further evaluate the practical feasibility of these strategies in terms of device efficiency, scalability and cost. In addition, we explore sustainable lead sources and advocate for the leveraging of lead–acid battery recycling as a transitional supply, ultimately aiming to establish a closed-loop lead recycling system for PSCs. By integrating lead-sequestration strategies, establishing recycling infrastructure for end-of-life perovskite photovoltaics and advancing producer responsibility policies, this Review provides a roadmap towards the safer and more sustainable commercialization of lead-based perovskite photovoltaics.

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Fig. 1: Lead toxicity of PSCs.
The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.
Fig. 2: Assessment of lead leakage for perovskite solar modules.
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Fig. 3: Strategies and mechanisms for mitigating Pb2+ leakage in PSCs.
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Fig. 4: SQE and stability.
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Fig. 5: Practical implications of the lead-sequestration strategy.
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Fig. 6: Lead recycling.
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Acknowledgements

Y.J. acknowledges funding support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 22461160281, 22279083, W2412076 and 52473184) and the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Z240024). D.L. acknowledges funding support from the Liaoning Provincial Special Project for Guiding and Supporting Local Scientific and Technological Development (Yingkou) (grant no. 2025LNYKG02). Y.Q. acknowledges the support from Global Institute of Future Technology and Zhangjiang Institute for Advanced Study in Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Key Laboratory of Intelligent Creation for Extreme Energy Materials, Ministry of Education, People’s Republic of China.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Materials Science and Engineering, and Beijing Institute of Technology (Zhuhai), Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

    Dongxu Lin  (林东旭), Qi Chen  (陈棋) & Yan Jiang  (姜岩)

  2. Division of Atmosphere and Aerospace Information Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, People’s Republic of China

    Dongxu Lin  (林东旭), Qi Chen  (陈棋) & Yan Jiang  (姜岩)

  3. Global Institute of Future Technology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Yuanfang Huang  (黄远方) & Yabing Qi  (戚亚冰)

  4. School of Interdisciplinary Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Environment Characteristics and Effects for Near-space, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

    Qi Chen  (陈棋)

  5. School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Zhibin Yang  (仰志斌)

  6. College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

    Fengqi You  (尤峰崎)

  7. Zhangjiang Institute for Advanced Study, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Yabing Qi  (戚亚冰)

  8. Key Laboratory of Intelligent Creation for Extreme Energy Materials, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Yabing Qi  (戚亚冰)

Authors
  1. Dongxu Lin  (林东旭)
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  2. Yuanfang Huang  (黄远方)
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  3. Qi Chen  (陈棋)
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  4. Zhibin Yang  (仰志斌)
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  5. Fengqi You  (尤峰崎)
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  6. Yabing Qi  (戚亚冰)
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  7. Yan Jiang  (姜岩)
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Contributions

D.L., Y.J. and Y.Q. jointly contributed to the conceptualization, literature analysis, figure preparation and writing of the manuscript. Y.H. contributed to the discussion of the recycling institutional considerations and assisted in revising the manuscript. Q.C. and Z.Y. provided support for the manuscript revision and the response to reviewers. F.Y. contributed to the discussion of the LCA content. All authors were involved in discussions regarding data analysis and commented on the manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Yabing Qi  (戚亚冰) or Yan Jiang  (姜岩).

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Lin, D., Huang, Y., Chen, Q. et al. Mitigating lead toxicity towards safer commercialization of perovskite solar cells. Nat Energy (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-026-02037-2

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