In October 2025, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson and Omar Yaghi for the development of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). Just weeks before the announcement, MOF-focused researchers from across the world met at the EuroMOF conference (in Heraklion, Greece) and listened to — among others — Kitagawa and Yaghi giving engaging plenary talks. What was striking at the conference was the many active researchers interested in the different fundamental aspects and applications of these materials. Indeed, it is evident that the field of MOFs is an extended network not only in terms of the materials themselves but the research projects and collaborations that people are involved with worldwide.

Figure reproduced from ref. 4, Springer Nature Limited.

MOFs are extended porous structures — in two or three dimensions — of organic linker molecules connected by metal nodes. Over the past 30 years, this assembly of an extraordinarily large range of building blocks has resulted in the synthesis of many thousands of MOFs, with synthetic scalability for some of these materials. MOFs can store and capture gases to alleviate pollution or trap harmful substances, as well as harvest water from desert environments. This real-world impact is seen in the commercialization of MOFs in companies on different continents1.

As is often the case with scientific developments, pinpointing the first discovery of an idea, or a theoretical prediction, or experimental demonstration is not straightforward. With the awarding of the Nobel prize, we take this opportunity to reflect on the discoveries and contributions made by Robson, Yaghi and Kitagawa.

In the late 1980s, Robson was intrigued by the possibility of making crystalline extended structures from the assembly of specific building blocks and connectors. Robson initially chose copper (I) ions and a rigid tetranitrile organic ligand and successfully made a diamond-like framework2. Robson had the vision that these frameworks had useful internal cavities, through which the diffusion of solvent molecules and counterions was possible, and that post-synthetic modification could open up a wealth of different functional structures3. Robson demonstrated the ion-exchange capabilities of the frameworks, while maintaining their structural integrity, and could foresee their use as catalysts. Crucially, Robson’s findings spurred interest in the construction of crystalline frameworks by selecting certain components.

Yaghi first coined the term metal–organic framework in the title of a Nature article in 1995, reporting the crystallization of carboxylate organic linkers and metal ions (pictured)4. These negatively charged linkers bond strongly to metal ions and resulted in increased thermally stability of these materials compared with previous metal-containing frameworks. This finding was a key concept in the synthesis of MOFs, as previously reported coordination polymers comprised neutral organic linkers with limited stability5. Yaghi followed up with the introduction of secondary building units6 (previously used for zeolites) to MOF synthesis as well as the initial report of the gas sorption properties7 of MOFs. This confirmed their architectural robustness and permanent porosity. With these gas sorption measurements, researchers could find the pore volumes and surface areas of the frameworks, which are now standard metrics in the evaluation of MOFs.

Kitagawa had an early interest in coordination polymers and brought this more structurally flexible and dynamic approach to the design of MOFs. In 1992, Kitagawa used copper (I) ions to coordinate with pyrazine and acetonitrile, forming a 2D infinite polymer network that could bind acetone molecules8. Some years later, Kitagawa reported a cobalt-based MOF, comprising 4,4′-bipyridine and nitrate, and its adsorption of small gases, such as methane, at room temperature9. Kitagawa investigated the transformation of crystal structures of MOFs in response to chemical and physical stimuli, and observed physisorbed O2 in porous MOFs10, which ultimately led to the ability to design MOF structures to store a range of gases or enable the separation of gases.

While MOFs are aesthetically compelling and are undoubtedly useful, the Nobel Foundation also describes how the materials deepen our understanding of periodic, extended structures. With MOFs, scientists can predictably design and synthesize 2D and 3D materials made from organic and metal components — an impossibility only three decades ago11. For their scientific vision leading to the engineering of crystals, we acknowledge the discoveries of Robson, Yaghi and Kitagawa, and congratulate them on their well-deserved recognition.