Extended Data Fig. 1: Microscopic details and fabrication of NanoFLUID.

a, Tightly stacked PEN film and copper foil were used as substrates. b, A blind hole was created with a laser drill. c, The blind hole was electroplated and filled with copper. d, A copper foil that had been stuck on the PEN film was patterned into a coil by photolithography and wet etching. e, Photograph of the fabricated coils and circuits. f, Gold was sputtered on PEN. g, The gold layer was patterned into an electrode by photolithography and wet etching. h, A photoresist (PR) was patterned into microchannels by photolithography. i, A nanopore membrane was sealed onto the PR layer through thermocompression bonding. j, Photograph of the fabricated electrodes and microchannels. k, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the cargo-loading zone in the microchannel layer. Cargo-containing solution is injected into the inlet, with the chamber serving as a buffer zone, then slowly fills the microchannels. l, SEM image of repeated functional microchannel units. Each lighter-colored square with a dot array is one functional microchannel unit; neighboring units are connected by two connective microchannels, as shown by the dotted yellow lines. m, Magnified SEM image of a single functional microchannel unit. The lighter color of the microchannel unit is due to the microelectrode beneath. The dot array consists of micropillars that provide local support, allowing for better attachment of the nanopore membrane onto the target tissue. n, Optical microscopy image of a single functional delivery module unit. This composite image shows the assembly of the nanopore layer, microchannel layer, and electrode layer on a micro-scale. The freckle-like dots are nanopores in the nanopore membrane on top of the microchannel layer; the bright square is a part of the microcathode beneath the microchannel layer. Images were taken every 3 μm along the z-axis and stacked together using S-gauge mode. o, SEM image of the nanopore membrane used in NanoFLUID. Nanopores (indicated with yellow arrowheads) are distributed over the membrane but are all identically sized. Inset shows an individual nanopore. Diameter of the nanopores is 600 nm.