Table 2 Risk factors associated with the development of long COVID (WHO definition)
From: Symptoms and risk factors for long COVID in non-hospitalized adults
Risk factor | Total numbers per strata (n = 384,137) | Long COVID symptoms (n = 29,869) (7.78) n (%) | Unadjusted HR (95% CI) | Adjusted HRa (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | ||||
Men | 171,593 | 9,090 (5.3) | Ref. | Ref. |
Women | 212,544 | 20,779 (9. 8) | 1.86 (1.81–1.90) | 1.52 (1.48–1.56) |
Age (years) | ||||
18–29 | 95,969 | 6,932 (7.2) | Ref. | Ref. |
30–39 | 78,302 | 5,805 (7.4) | 1.13 (1.10–1.18) | 0.94 (0.90–0.97) |
40–49 | 75,349 | 5,784 (7.7) | 1.14 (1.10–1.18) | 0.89 (0.86-0.93) |
50–59 | 73,262 | 5,485 (7.5) | 1.07 (1.04–1.11) | 0.80 (0.77–0.83) |
60–69 | 35,932 | 2,790 (7.8) | 1.09 (1.05–1.14) | 0.74 (0.70–0.78) |
≥70 | 25,323 | 3,073 (12.1) | 1.39 (1.33–1.45) | 0.75 (0.70–0.81) |
Ethnicity | ||||
White | 246,717 | 20,462 (8.3) | Ref. | Ref. |
Asianb | 47,788 | 3,647 (7.6) | 0.90 (0.82–0.99) | 0.99 (0.89–1.09) |
Black | 15,846 | 1,053 (6.7) | 1.01 (0.91–1.11) | 1.21 (1.10–1.34) |
Mixed | 5,976 | 407 (6.8) | 0.98 (0.92–1.04) | 1.14 (1.07–1.22) |
Otherc | 5,438 | 404 (7.4) | 0.94 (0.91–0.97) | 1.06 (1.03–1.10) |
Missing | 62,372 | 3,896 (6.3) | 0.74 (0.71–0.76) | 0.92 (0.88–0.95) |
BMI (kg m−2) | ||||
<18.5 | 10,312 | 762 (7.4) | 0.93 (0.86–1.00) | 0.93 (0.86–1.00) |
18.5–25 | 117,630 | 8,849 (7.5) | Ref. | Ref. |
25–30 | 109,707 | 8,612 (7.9) | 1.06 (1.03–1.09) | 1.07 (1.04–1.10) |
>30 | 95,799 | 9,233 (9.6) | 1.29 (1.25–1.33) | 1.10 (1.07–1.14) |
Missing | 50,689 | 2,413 (4.8) | 0.63 (0.60–0.65) | 0.91 (0.86–0.95) |
Smoking status | ||||
Non-smoker | 141,967 | 9,671 (6.8) | Ref. | Ref. |
Ex-smoker | 139,294 | 12,407 (8.9) | 1.33 (1.29–1.36) | 1.08 (1.05–1.11) |
Current smoker | 85,765 | 7,072 (8.3) | 1.31 (1.27–1.35) | 1.12 (1.08–1.15) |
Missing | 17,111 | 719 (4.2) | 0.61 (0.56–0.65) | 0.90 (0.83–0.97) |
Socioeconomic status quintile (IMD) | ||||
1 (least deprived) | 66,564 | 4,392 (6.6) | Ref. | Ref. |
2 | 68,657 | 4,963 (7.2) | 1.09 (1.05–1.13) | 1.05 (1.00–1.09) |
3 | 70,699 | 5,486 (7.8) | 1.19 (1.14–1.24) | 1.10 (1.05–1.14) |
4 | 84,002 | 6,523 (7.8) | 1.20 (1.16–1.25) | 1.07 (1.03–1.11) |
5 (most deprived) | 87,270 | 7,883 (9.0) | 1.33 (1.28–1.38) | 1.11 (1.07–1.16) |
Missing | 6,945 | 622 (9.0) | 1.28 (1.7–1.39) | 1.10 (1.01–1.20) |
Symptoms recorded before COVID-19 | 78,880 | 13,207 (16.7) | 2.92 (2.85–2.99) | 2.07 (2.02–2.12) |
Comorbidities | ||||
COPD | 8,040 | 1,741 (21.7) | 2.71 (2.58–2.85) | 1.55 (1.47–1.64) |
BPH | 4,961 | 596 (12.0) | 1.39 (1.28–1.51) | 1.39 (1.28–1.52) |
Fibromyalgia | 4,031 | 900 (22.3) | 3.17 (2.97–3.39) | 1.37 (1.28–1.47) |
Anxiety | 77,753 | 10,481 (13.5) | 2.17 (2.12–2.23) | 1.35 (1.31–1.39) |
Erectile dysfunction | 16,678 | 1,551 (9.3) | 1.15 (1.09–1.21) | 1.33 (1.26–1.41) |
Depression | 83,903 | 11,222 (13.4) | 2.22 (2.17–2.27) | 1.31 (1.27–1.34) |
Migraine | 43,043 | 5,597 (13.0) | 1.88 (1.83–1.94) | 1.26 (1.22–1.30) |
Multiple sclerosis | 791 | 98 (12.4) | 1.52 (1.25–1.85) | 1.26 (1.03–1.53) |
Celiac disease | 1,669 | 207 (12.4) | 1.58 (1.38–1.81) | 1.25 (1.09–1.43) |
Learning disability | 3,283 | 295 (9.0) | 1.22 (1.09–1.37) | 1.24 (1.11–1.40) |
IBS | 27,492 | 3,691 (13.4) | 1.84 (1.78–1.91) | 1.20 (1.15–1.24) |
Endometriosis | 5,727 | 800 (14.0) | 1.92 (1.79–2.06) | 1.19 (1.11–1.28) |
Low Hb | 20,039 | 2,683 (13.4) | 1.78 (1.71–1.85) | 1.18 (1.13–1.23) |
Deafness | 3,767 | 514 (13.6) | 1.53 (1.40–1.67) | 1.16 (1.06–1.27) |
Eating disorder | 3,488 | 504 (14. 5) | 1.92 (1.75–2.09) | 1.16 (1.06–1.27) |
Substance misuse | 6,449 | 775 (12.0) | 1.69 (1.58–1.82) | 1.15 (1.07–1.23) |
Back pain | 5,483 | 718 (13.1) | 1.76 (1.64–1.90) | 1.15 (1.07–1.24) |
Asthma | 76,946 | 8,527 (11.1) | 1.59 (1.55–1.63) | 1.15 (1.12–1.18) |
Chronic sinusitis | 6,838 | 873 (12.8) | 1.63 (1.52–1.74) | 1.14 (1.07–1.22) |
PCOS | 9,599 | 1,166 (12.2) | 1.73 (1.63–1.84) | 1.14 (1.07–1.21) |
