Table 2 Univariate associations, clinical linear regression model and multifaceted linear regression models for GDfE score in NeuroCOVID and COVID groups

From: Posthospitalization COVID-19 cognitive deficits at 1 year are global and associated with elevated brain injury markers and gray matter volume reduction

Variable

NeuroCOVID

    

COVID

    
 

Univariatea

Coefficient P value

Univariate effect sizeb

Clinical model,

n = 93 of 190,

R2 = 0.28,

P = 0.44

Multifaceted model,

n = 54 of 190,

R2 = 0.68,

P = 0.00064

Univariatea

Coefficient P value

Effect size

Clinical model,

n = 89 of 161,

R2 = 0.42,

P = 0.003

Multifaceted model,

n = 53 of 161

R2 = 0.68,

P = 0.00051

 

Coefficient (s.e.)

  

Multivariate

estimate (s.e.)

Multivariate

estimate (s.e.)

Coefficient (s.e.)

  

Multivariate estimate (s.e.)

Multivariate estimate (s.e.)

Clinical

Age (years)

−0.0038 (0.0072)

0.600

−0.02

−0.010 (0.013)

−0.044 (0.017)*, P = 0.0113

−0.012 (0.0074)

0.117

−0.12

−0.00039 (0.013)

0.0094 (0.015)

Level of education

Degree

0.76 (0.47)

0.104

0.07

0.35 (0.67)

 

0.75 (0.31)*

0.017

0.24

−0.17 (0.49)

 

 School, vocational

0.36 (0.46)

0.435

0.02

−0.065 (0.66)

NI

0.11 (0.32)

0.727

0.02

−0.75 (0.46)

NI

 None of above (reference)

          

Clinical Frailty Scale

Mild (4–5)

−0.24 (0.34)

0.480

0.02

−0.48 (0.62)

 

−0.18 (0.56)

0.747

0.03

−0.073 (0.59)

 

 Moderate–severe (6–8)

1.04 (0.79)

0.187

0.15

NI

NI

ND

 

ND

 

NI

Admission date

1 March 2020 to 1 September 2020

0.35 (0.35)

0.310

0.15

0.017 (1.25)

2.69 (1.71)

−0.25 (0.26)

0.350

0.09

−0.25 (1.88)

−0.93 (1.74)

 1 September 2020 to 1 March 2021

−0.54 (0.33)

0.106

0.17

−1.92 (1.07)

2.60 (1.51)

−0.80 (0.26)**

0.00290

0.28

−0.39 (0.77)

−0.0011 (1.39)

 1 March 2021 to 1 September 2021

−0.20 (0.38)

0.604

0.04

−1.05 (1.29)

−0.91 (1.52)

−0.47 (0.37)

0.210

0.15

1.09 (0.79)

5.60 (3.45)

 1 September 2021 to 1 March 2022 (reference)

          

 1 September 2022

−0.37 (0.56)

0.511

0.14

−2.17 (1.61)

ND

−0.18 (0.44)

0.689

0.04

−4.71 (2.52)

1.98 (1.50)

Days since COVID-19

0.00092 (0.00059)

0.12

0.14

−0.0014 (0.0017)

0.000099 (0.0020)

−0.00018 (0.00032)

0.574

−0.0099

−0.0000079 (0.0023)

0.0018 (0.0020)

WHO COVID-19 severity

Moderate

−0.16 (0.28)

0.566

0.06

-0.28 (0.43)

NI

0.81 (0.28)**

0.00481

0.28

−0.15 (0.43)

−0.98 (0.54)

 Severe

−0.26 (0.27)

0.338

0.04

−0.51 (0.50)

 

0.85 (0.32)**

0.00807

0.34

0.15 (0.49)

−0.85 (0.66)

 Mild (reference)

          

Diagnostic group

Cerebrovascular

−0.39 (0.32)

0.229

0.16

−0.44 (0.55)

−0.93 (0.73)

NI

NI

NI

NI

NI

 Encephalopathy

−0.84 (0.35)*

0.0164

0.25

−0.78 (0.50)

0.062 (0.51)

     

 Inflammatory

−0.48 (0.38)

0.211

0.17

−0.24 (0.56)

−0.29 (0.57)

     

 Neuropsychiatric

−0.057 (0.33)

0.865

0.07

0.10 (0.54)

−0.26 (0.48)

     

 Other

−0.31 (0.33)

0.352

0.11

0.018 (0.50)

−0.66 (0.48)

     

 Peripheral (reference)

          

PHQ-9 score (per unit)

−0.054 (0.017) **

0.00205

−0.20

−0.013 (0.027)

0.030 (0.030)

−0.065 (0.017)***

0.000192

−0.29

−0.063 (0.024)*, P = 0.0126

−0.056 (0.028)*, P = 0.0496

Multimorbidity

−0.051 (0.073)

0.492

−0.00094

0.086 (0.12)

0.31 (0.13)*, P = 0.0254

−0.16 (0.058)**

0.00734

−0.11

−0.18 (0.088)*, P = 0.0462

−0.20 (0.083)*, P = 0.0206

Steroid treatment

−0.25 (0.22)

0.257

0.08

0.59 (0.40)

NI

0.028 (0.20)

0.89

0.04

−0.15 (0.28)

NI

Brain injury markers (pg ml−1)

NfL

0.00063 (0.0012)

0.61

−0.05

NI

0.033 (0.025)

−0.0014 (0.0035)

0.692

0.056

NI

0.038 (0.031)

 GFAP

0.00048 (0.00088)

0.584

−0.0022

NI

0.0041 (0.0042)

−0.00041 (0.0015)

0.788

−0.030

NI

−0.0081 (0.0032)*, P = 0.0168

Neuroimaging

Anterior cingulate cortex volume

0.23 (0.078)**

0.00457

0.31

NI

0.23 (0.091)*, P = 0.0165

0.32 (0.10)**

0.00253

0.35

NI

0.15 (0.13)

  1. Variables included in multivariate analysis are described. NI, not included; ND, no data. Date of admission, days since COVID-19 and geographically clustered recruitment site were included in models with the interaction term Admission date: Days since COVID-19. Two-sided linear regression coefficient *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.
  2. aGDfE represents how an individual performs compared with what would be expected based upon their age, sex, first language and level of education.
  3. bMann–Whitney U-test for categorical variables, Spearman’s rho for continuous variables, Pearson’s r for image-derived phenotypes; >0.1 small effect size, >0.3 medium effect size.
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