Fig. 3: Antibiotic use and its associations with abundance of gut microbiome species.

The associations between the number of antibiotic courses before fecal sampling and species abundance were investigated using regression models adjusted for full-model covariates in three cohorts (SCAPIS, SIMPLER and MOS, total n = 14,974), followed by meta-analyses of the regression coefficients. Blue or red vertical bars represent a negative or positive meta-analyzed regression coefficient, respectively. Only significant associations are shown (FDR < 5%). The y axis displays the 11 antibiotic classes and the periods of the antibiotic courses: <1 year, 1–4 years and 4–8 years before fecal sampling. The proportion of users indicates the proportion of participants from the study population who had at least one course of the respective antibiotic in that period. The 1,340 species in the x axis were ordered based on their taxonomy. Phyla are identified at the bottom of the plot. For the phylum Bacillota A, the taxonomic orders are also displayed. SMZ-TMP, sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim; Amox-clav., amoxicillin-clavulanic acid; Bacteroid., Bacteroidota; Actino., Actinomycetota; Christens., Christensenellales.