Fig. 1

Overview of the experimental procedures. The experimental protocol began with a grip-strength calibration phase using a dynamometer and stress ball to enhance the kinesthetic sensation and consistency of motor imagery. The main paradigm employed a block design, consisting of multiple sessions, each containing multiple trials. Throughout the task, subjects performed kinesthetic motor imagery, focusing on the sensation of the movement rather than its visual representation. Data was acquired by synchronously recording 32-channel EEG (256 Hz) and 90-channel fNIRS (11 Hz) signals.