Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Advertisement

Scientific Data
  • View all journals
  • Search
  • My Account Login
  • Content Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed
  1. nature
  2. scientific data
  3. data descriptors
  4. article
A global dataset of spatiotemporal co-occurrence patterns of avian influenza virus-associated migratory birds
Download PDF
Download PDF
  • Data Descriptor
  • Open access
  • Published: 03 February 2026

A global dataset of spatiotemporal co-occurrence patterns of avian influenza virus-associated migratory birds

  • Jun Ma1,2 na1,
  • Yan-He Wang3 na1,
  • Yun-Bo Qiu1,2 na1,
  • Jin-Jin Chen2,4,
  • Yun Han1,2,
  • Yan Zhang2,
  • Sheng-Hong Lin2,
  • Qing-Jie Wang1,2,
  • Long-Tao Chen1,2,
  • Xin-Jing Zhao2,
  • Sheng Zhang1,2,
  • Tian Tang2,
  • Yao Tian2,
  • Yu-Feng Yang2,
  • Qiang Xu2,
  • Zi-Da Meng2,
  • Chen-Long Lv2,
  • Guo-Lin Wang2,
  • Feng Hong1 &
  • …
  • Li-Qun Fang  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4981-14831,2 

Scientific Data , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Animal migration
  • Behavioural ecology

Abstract

Migratory birds facilitate the cross-regional spread of pathogens such as avian influenza virus (AIV). Interspecies interactions among multiple migratory bird species within shared spatiotemporal habitats can substantially enhance pathogen transmission and evolution, thereby posing potential risks to public health and livestock safety. Recent advances in tracking technologies, such as GPS, combined with publicly accessible databases like Movebank, have enabled the reconstruction of avian migratory pathways. However, existing tracking data are largely collected from individual species, remain species-specific and are insufficient for characterizing interspecies contact during migration. By integrating available tracking data from 62 migratory bird species (comprising 3,944 individual records), this study constructed a co-occurrence dataset comprising 50 migratory bird species that exhibited spatial and temporal overlap at shared locations, with a daily temporal resolution and spatial resolution aligned with first-level administrative divisions. This dataset can facilitate the identification of potential hotspots for migratory bird-associated pathogen evolution, thereby providing data-driven support for the prevention and control of emerging infectious diseases.

Data availability

The dataset is publicly available on figshare55 at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31044229.v1. It comprises eight Excel files, including three core dataset files and five supporting data files.

Code availability

The analysis code is publicly accessible at https://github.com/FlowSpatial/Migratory-birds-code.git. It covers trajectory screening, T-DBSCAN-based stopover identification, and spatiotemporal co-occurrence analysis.

References

  1. Morrick, Z. N. et al. Differential population trends align with migratory connectivity in an endangered shorebird. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 4, e594, https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.594 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Somveille, M. J. F. O. B. The global ecology of bird migration: patterns and processes. Front. Biogeogr. 8, https://doi.org/10.21425/F58332694 (2016).

  3. Saunders, S. P. et al. Multispecies migratory connectivity indicates hemispheric-scale risk to bird populations from global change. Nat Ecol Evol. 9, 491–504, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02575-6 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bauer, S. & Hoye, B. J. Migratory animals couple biodiversity and ecosystem functioning worldwide. Science. 344, 1242552, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1242552 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Zuckerberg, B. & La Sorte, F. A. Editorial: Bird movements and migration under global environmental change: current and future implications. Front. Bird Sci. 3 https://doi.org/10.3389/fbirs.2024.1470012 (2024).

  6. Fuller, T. et al. The ecology of emerging infectious diseases in migratory birds: an assessment of the role of climate change and priorities for future research. Ecohealth. 9, 80–88, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-012-0750-1 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Ottaviani, D. et al. The cold European winter of 2005-2006 assisted the spread and persistence of H5N1 influenza virus in wild birds. Ecohealth. 7, 226–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2014.08.005 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Mu, J. E., McCarl, B. A., Wu, X. & Ward, M. P. Climate change and the risk of highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in birds. Br. J. Environ. Clim. Change. 4, 166–185, https://doi.org/10.9734/BJECC/2014/8888 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Jourdain, E., Gauthier-Clerc, M., Bicout, D. J. & Sabatier, P. Bird migration routes and risk for pathogen dispersion into western Mediterranean wetlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 13, 365–372, https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1303.060301 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Georgopoulou, I. & Tsiouris, V. J. V. I. The potential role of migratory birds in the transmission of zoonoses. Vet. Ital. 44, 671–677 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Jourdain, E. et al. Bird species potentially involved in introduction, amplification, and spread of West Nile virus in a Mediterranean wetland, the Camargue (Southern France). Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 7, 15–33, https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2006.0543 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Reed, K. D., Meece, J. K., Henkel, J. S. & Shukla, S. K. J. C. m. & research. Birds, migration and emerging zoonoses: West Nile virus, Lyme disease, influenza A and enteropathogens. Clin. Med. Res. 1, 5–12, https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.1.1.5 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Mancuso, E. et al. Direct and indirect role of migratory birds in spreading CCHFV and WNV: a multidisciplinary study on three stop-over islands in Italy. Pathogens. 11, 1056, https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091056 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Wang, H. et al. Continuous surveillance of pathogens detects excretion of avian orthoreovirus and parvovirus by several wild waterfowl: possible wild bird reservoirs. Poult. Sci. 103, 103940, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2024.103940 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Pal, S., Sarkar, J., Das, P., Let, M. & Debanshi, S. Transformation trajectory of wetland and suitability of migratory water bird habitat in the moribund Ganges delta. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 31, 59103–59124, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35008-9 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Xia, S. et al. Identification and scoring of conservation gaps in wetlands of China’s coastal provinces: Implications for extending protected areas. J Environ Manage. 358, 120865, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120865 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Londe, D. W. et al. Climate change causes declines and greater extremes in wetland inundation in a region important for wetland birds. Ecol Appl. 34, e2930, https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2930 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Etayeb, K. et al. Results of the eighteenth winter waterbird census in Libya in 2022. Open Vet J. 13, 407–418, https://doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2023.v13.i4.2 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Ruiz, S. et al. Remote sensing and ecological variables related to influenza A prevalence and subtype diversity in wild birds in the Lluta Wetland of Northern Chile. Viruses. 15, https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061241 (2023).

  20. Zou, Y. A. et al. Crucial sites and environmental variables for wintering migratory waterbird population distributions in the natural wetlands in East Dongting Lake, China. Sci Total Environ. 655, 147–157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.185 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Cai, S., Mu, T., Peng, H. B., Ma, Z. & Wilcove, D. S. Importance of habitat heterogeneity in tidal flats to the conservation of migratory shorebirds. Conserv Biol. 38, e14153, https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14153 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Leung, F. et al. Rise and fall of an avian oasis: Tracking the impacts of land use change in a key coastal wetland in the world’s largest megalopolis. Sci Total Environ. 906, 167231, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167231 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Kasahara, S., Morimoto, G., Kitamura, W., Imanishi, S. & Azuma, N. Rice fields along the East Asian-Australasian flyway are important habitats for an inland wader’s migration. Sci Rep. 10, 4118, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60141-z (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Mackell, D. A. et al. Migration stopover ecology of Cinnamon Teal in western North America. Ecol Evol. 11, 14056–14069, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8115 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Wagner, D. N., Green, D. J., Pavlik, M., Cooper, J. & Williams, T. D. Physiological assessment of the effects of changing water levels associated with reservoir management on fattening rates of neotropical migrants at a stopover site. Conserv Physiol. 2, cou017, https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cou017 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Hepp, M., Palsson, E., Thomsen, S. K. & Green, D. J. Predicting the effects of reservoir water level management on the reproductive output of a riparian songbird. PLoS One. 16, e0247318, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247318 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Lehnen, S. E. & Krementz, D. G. Use of aquaculture ponds and other habitats by autumn migrating shorebirds along the lower Mississippi river. Environ Manage. 52, 417–426, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0087-8 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Gass, J. D. Jr. et al. Global dissemination of influenza A virus is driven by wild bird migration through arctic and subarctic zones. Mol Ecol. 32, 198–213, https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.16738 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Jeglinski, J. W. E. et al. HPAIV outbreak triggers short-term colony connectivity in a seabird metapopulation. Sci Rep. 14, 3126, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53550-x (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Horm, V. S., Gutiérrez, R. A., Nicholls, J. M. & Buchy, P. Highly pathogenic influenza A(H5N1) virus survival in complex artificial aquatic biotopes. PLoS One. 7, e34160, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034160 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Brown, J., Stallknecht, D., Lebarbenchon, C. & Swayne, D. Survivability of Eurasian H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in water varies between strains. Avian Dis. 58, 453–457, https://doi.org/10.1637/10741-120513-ResNote.1 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  32. de Graaf, M. & Fouchier, R. A. Role of receptor binding specificity in influenza A virus transmission and pathogenesis. Embo j. 33, 823–841, https://doi.org/10.1002/embj.201387442 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Imai, M. & Kawaoka, Y. The role of receptor binding specificity in interspecies transmission of influenza viruses. Curr Opin Virol. 2, 160–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2012.03.003 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Guo, X. et al. Molecular markers and mechanisms of influenza A Virus cross-species transmission and new host adaptation. Viruses. 16, https://doi.org/10.3390/v16060883 (2024).

  35. Matrosovich, M. et al. Early alterations of the receptor-binding properties of H1, H2, and H3 avian influenza virus hemagglutinins after their introduction into mammals. J Virol. 74, 8502–8512, https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.74.18.8502-8512.2000 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Bi, Y., Yang, J., Wang, L., Ran, L. & Gao, G. F. Ecology and evolution of avian influenza viruses. Current Biology. 34, R716–R721, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.05.053 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Hill, N. J. et al. Ecological divergence of wild birds drives avian influenza spillover and global spread. PLoS Pathog. 18, e1010062, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1010062 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Yang, Q. et al. Synchrony of bird migration with global dispersal of avian influenza reveals exposed bird orders. Nat. Commun. 15, 1126, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45462-1 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Xu, Y., Gong, P., Wielstra, B. & Si, Y. Southward autumn migration of waterfowl facilitates cross-continental transmission of the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus. Sci Rep. 6, 30262, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30262 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Gilbert, M. et al. Flying over an infected landscape: distribution of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 risk in South Asia and satellite tracking of wild waterfowl. EcoHealth. 7, 448–458, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-010-0672-8 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Wang, D. et al. Ecology of avian influenza viruses in migratory birds wintering within the Yangtze River wetlands. Science Bulletin. 66, 2014–2024, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2021.03.023 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Kilpatrick, A. M. et al. Predicting the global spread of H5N1 avian influenza. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103, 19368–19373, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609227103 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Gilbert, M. et al. Anatidae migration in the western Palearctic and spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5NI virus. Emerg Infect Dis. 12, 1650–1656, https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1211.060223 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Verhagen, J. H., Herfst, S. & Fouchier, R. A. M. How a virus travels the world. Science. 347, 616–617, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa6724 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Lee, D. H. et al. Intercontinental spread of Asian-origin H5N8 to North America through Beringia by migratory birds. J Virol. 89, 6521–6524, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00728-15 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Caliendo, V. et al. Transatlantic spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 by wild birds from Europe to North America in 2021. Sci Rep. 12, 11729, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13447-z (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Tian, J. et al. Highly Pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b introduced by wild birds, China, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis. 29, 1367–1375, https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2907.221149 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Tian, H. et al. Avian influenza H5N1 viral and bird migration networks in Asia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 112, 172–177, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1405216112 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Bridge, E. S. et al. Technology on the move: recent and forthcoming innovations for tracking migratory birds. BioScience. 61, 689–698, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.9.7 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Kays, R. et al. The Movebank system for studying global animal movement and demography. Methods Ecol. Evol. 12, 2283–2297, https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13767 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Kranstauber, B. et al. The Movebank data model for animal tracking. Environ. Model. Softw. 26, 834–835, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.12.005 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  52. He, X. et al. The T-DBSCAN algorithm for stopover site identification of migration birds based on satellite positioning data. Biology (Basel). 14, https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030277 (2025).

  53. Wen, C., Minhe, J. & Jianmei, W. J. I. J. O. O. E. T-DBSCAN: A spatiotemporal density clustering for GPS trajectory segmentation. Int. J. Online Eng. 10, 19, https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v10i6.3881 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Qiu, Y. et al. The global distribution and diversity of wild-bird-associated pathogens: An integrated data analysis and modeling study. Med, 100553, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medj.2024.11.006 (2024).

  55. Ma, J. A global dataset of spatiotemporal co-occurrence patterns of avian influenza virus -associated migratory birds. Figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31044229.v1 (2026).

  56. Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International. Handbook of the birds of the world and BirdLife International digital checklist of the birds of the world: Version 9.0. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/taxonomy (2024).

  57. Pebesma, E. Simple features for R: Standardized support for spatial vector data. R journal. 10, 439–446, https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2018-009 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Kruckenberg, H., Müskens, G. J. D. M. & Ebbinge, B. S. Data from: A periodic Markov model to formalise animal migration on a network [white-fronted goose data]. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.kk38017f (2018).

  59. Michalik, B., Brust, V. & Hüppop, O. Data from: Are movements of day- and night-time passerine migrants as different as day and night? Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.675pd8k5 (2020).

  60. Piironen, A., Paasivaara, A. & Laaksonen, T. Data from: Birds of three worlds: moult migration to high Arctic expands a boreal-temperate flyway to a third biome. Movebank Data Repository https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.22kk5126 (2021).

  61. Santos, C. D., Ferraz, R., Muñoz, A.-R., Onrubia, A. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Black kites of different age and sex show similar avoidance responses to wind turbines during migration. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.23n2m412 (2021).

  62. Rotics, S. et al. Data from: Early arrival at breeding grounds: causes, costs and a trade-off with overwintering latitude. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.v8d24552 (2018).

  63. Martell, M. S. & Douglas, D. Data from: Fall migration routes, timing, and wintering sites of North American ospreys as determined by satellite telemetry. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.sv6335t3 (2019).

  64. Baak, J. E., Patterson, A., Gilchrist, H. G. & Elliott, K. H. Data from: First evidence of diverging migration and overwintering strategies in glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus) from the Canadian Arctic. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.tj948m64 (2021).

  65. Kölzsch, A. et al. Data from: Flyway connectivity and exchange primarily driven by moult migration in geese [North Sea population]. Movebank Data Repository https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.46b0mq21 (2019).

  66. Müskens, G. J. D. M. et al. Data from: Flyway connectivity and exchange primarily driven by moult migration in geese [Pannonic population]. Movebank Data Repository https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.46b0mq21 (2019).

  67. van der Jeugd, H., Osterbeek, K., Ens, B. J., Shamoun-Baranes, J. & Exo, K.-M. Data from: Forecasting spring from afar? Timing of migration and predictability of phenology along different migration routes of an avian herbivore [Barents Sea data]. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.ps244r11 (2014).

  68. Kölzsch, A., Müskens, G. J. D. M., Glazov, P., Kruckenberg, H. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Goose parents lead migration V. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.ms87s2m6 (2020).

  69. Carlson, B., Rotics, S., Nathan, R., Wikelski, M. & Jetz, W. Data from: Individual environmental niches in mobile organisms. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.rj21g1p1 (2021).

  70. Efrat, R., Hatzofe, O. & Nathan, R. Data from: Landscape-dependent time versus energy optimisations in pelicans migrating through a large ecological barrier. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.hs79pk45 (2019).

  71. Nuijten, R. J. M., Gerrits, T., de Vries, P. P., Müskens, G. J. D. M. & Nolet, B. A. Data from: Less is more: on-board lossy compression of accelerometer data increases biologging capacity. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.8ms7mm80 (2020).

  72. Winkler, D. W. et al. Data from: Long-distance range expansion and rapid adjustment of migration in a newly established population of Barn Swallows breeding in Argentina. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.rt00m81v (2017).

  73. Schwemmer, P. & Garthe, S. Data from: Migrating curlews on schedule: departure and arrival patterns of a long-distance migrant depend on time and breeding location rather than on wind conditions. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.715k46g2 (2021).

  74. Buitendijk, N. H. et al. Data from: More grazing, more damage? Assessed yield loss on agricultural grassland relates non-linearly to goose grazing pressure. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.fk899541 (2023).

  75. Boiko, D., Wikelski, M. & Fiedler, W. Data from: Moulting sites of Latvian whooper swan Cygnus cygnus cygnets fitted with GPS-GSM transmitters. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.f89984gn (2019).

  76. Nye, P., Hewitt, G., Swenson, T. & Kays, R. Data from: New York State bald eagle report 2010. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.s65q50j0 (2018).

  77. Byholm, P., Beal, M., Lötberg, U. & Åkesson, S. Data from: Paternal transmission of migration knowledge in a long-distance bird migrant. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.352qf1cv (2022).

  78. Petersen, M. R. & Douglas, D. Data from: Post-fledging movements of juvenile common mergansers (Mergus merganser) in Alaska as inferred by satellite telemetry. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.3gc013f3 (2016).

  79. Goodenough, K. S. & Patton, R. T. Data from: Satellite telemetry reveals strong fidelity to migration routes and wintering grounds for the gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.d73t7vt8 (2021).

  80. Kölzsch, A., Müskens, G. J. D. M., Nolet, B. A. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Scaring waterfowl as a management tool: how much more do geese forage after disturbance? Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.7tp81b7b (2016).

  81. Ilyashenko, E. I. et al. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Russia. Common Crane.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.593 (2024).

  82. Ilyashenko, E. I. et al. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Russia. Transbaikalia.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.592 (2024).

  83. Jennings, S., Lumpkin, D., Warnock, N. & Condeso, E. Data from: Study “Audubon Canyon Ranch egret telemetry project”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.641 (2025).

  84. McDermott, M. T., Madden, S. A. & Safran, R. J. Data from: Study “Barn Swallow Hirundidae GPS data from Boulder County, CO, USA”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.8c9b82qk (2023).

  85. Dagys, M. & Žydelis, R. Data from: Study “Common Crane Lithuania GPS, 2015-2016”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.604 (2024).

  86. Giunchi, D. et al. Data from: Study “Eurasian teal, Giunchi, Italy”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.250 (2023).

  87. Žydelis, R., Desholm, M., Månsson, J., Nilsson, L. & Skov, H. Data from: Study “GPS telemetry of Common Cranes, Sweden”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.597 (2024).

  88. Clark, D. E., Mackenzie, S. A., Koenen, K., Whitney, J. & DeStefano, S. Data from: Study “Herring Gulls (Larus Argentatus); Clark; Massachussets, United States”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.3th8b5q3 (2020).

  89. Gilchrist, H. G., Macdonald, C. A., Janssen, M. H., Allard, K. A. & Anderson, C. M. Data from: Study “Herring Gulls (Larus Argentatus); Gilchrist; East Bay Island, Canada”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.1r1s4v8d (2020).

  90. Ronconi, R. A. & Taylor, P. D. Data from: Study “Herring Gulls (Larus Argentatus); Ronconi; Sable Island, Canada”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.3264ss3v (2020).

  91. Fiedler, W. et al. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork Bavaria” (2014-2023). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.v1cs4nn0_2 (2024).

  92. Maxhuni, Q., Gashi, A., Hoxha, L., Wolf, G. & Fiedler, W. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork Kosova”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.s367rd3k (2021).

  93. Fiedler, W., Flack, A., Schmid, A., Reinhard, U. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork Oberschwaben” (2014-2023). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.ck04mn78_2 (2024).

  94. Fiedler, W. et al. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork Rheinland-Pfalz” (2015-2023). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.4192t2j4_2 (2024).

  95. Fiedler, W. et al. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork SW Germany” (2013-2023). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.ck04mn78_2 (2024).

  96. Fiedler, W., Niederer, W., Schönenberger, A., Flack, A. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “LifeTrack White Stork Vorarlberg” (2016-2023). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.71r7pp6q_2 (2024).

  97. Berthold, P. et al. Data from: Study “MPIAB Argos white stork tracking (1991-2017)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.k29d81dh (2022).

  98. Batbayar, N., Galtbalt, B., Natsagdorj, T., Sukhbaatar, T. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “White-naped crane Mongolia WSCC”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.600 (2024).

  99. Garthe, S. et al. Data from: Terrestrial and marine foraging strategies of an opportunistic seabird species breeding in the Wadden Sea. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.nk286sc0 (2016).

  100. Burnham, K. K. Data from: The history and range expansion of peregrine falcons in the Thule area, northwest Greenland. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.b3b511d2 (2020).

  101. Bontekoe, I. D., Flack, A. & Fiedler, W. Data from: The price of being late: short- and long-term consequences of a delayed migration timing [control birds]. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.271 (2023).

  102. Kölzsch, A., Kruckenberg, H., Glazov, P., Müskens, G. J. D. M. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Towards a new understanding of migration timing: slower spring than autumn migration in geese reflects different decision rules for stopover use and departure. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.31c2v92f (2016).

  103. Choi, C.-Y. et al. Data from: Tracking domestic ducks: a novel approach for documenting poultry market chains in the context of avian influenza transmission. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.38f467s7 (2016).

  104. Wikelski, M. et al. Data from: True navigation in migrating gulls requires intact olfactory nerves. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.q986rc29 (2015).

  105. Brust, V. & Hüppop, O. Data from: Underestimated scale of songbird offshore migration across the south-eastern North Sea during autumn. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.kt323qm0 (2022).

  106. Kölzsch, A. et al. Data from: Wild goose chase: geese flee high and far, and with aftereffects from New Year’s fireworks. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.g51fs0jv (2022).

  107. Flack, A., Fiedler, W. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Wind estimation based on thermal soaring of birds. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.bj96m274 (2017).

  108. Marques, A. T. et al. Data from: Wind farm turbines cause functional habitat loss for migratory soaring birds. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.q23p1t84 (2019).

  109. van Toor, M. L. et al. Migration distance affects how closely Eurasian wigeons follow spring phenology during migration. Mov Ecol. 9, 61, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-021-00296-0 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  110. Curk, T. et al. Arctic avian predators synchronise their spring migration with the northern progression of snowmelt. Sci. Rep. 10, 7220, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63312-0 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  111. Ramey, A. & Soos, C. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2019).

  112. Petersen, M., Flint, P. & Mulcahy, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2021).

  113. Uher-Koch, B., Schmutz, J., Hupp, J., Ely, C. & Douglas, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Emperor Geese (Anser canagicus)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2020).

  114. Petersen, M. R., Flint, P. L., Grand, J. B., Mulcahy, D. M. D. & David, C. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2022).

  115. Hupp, J., Tibbitts, T. & Douglas, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Northern Pintails (Anas acuta)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2019).

  116. Hupp, J., Shimada, T. Y. & NM, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Whooper Swans (Cygnus cygnus)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ELFTSV (2021).

  117. Strandberg, R. et al. Complex timing of Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus migration due to pre-and post-migratory movements. Ardea. 96, 159–171, https://doi.org/10.5253/078.096.0202 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  118. Hall, L. A., Latty, C. J., Warren, J. M., Takekawa, J. Y. & De La Cruz, S. E. J. Jo. F. O. Contrasting migratory chronology and routes of Lesser Scaup: implications of different migration strategies in a broadly distributed species. J. Field Ornithol. 95, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.5751/JFO-00402-950108 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  119. Flack, A. et al. Costs of migratory decisions: a comparison across eight white stork populations. Sci Adv. 2, e1500931, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.15009 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  120. Flack, A. et al. Daily energy expenditure in white storks is lower after fledging than in the nest. J Exp Biol. 223, jeb219337, https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.219337 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  121. Gehrold, A. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Great flexibility in autumn movement patterns of European Gadwalls (Anas strepera). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1600-048X.2013.00248.X (2014).

  122. Ely, C. R. & Meixell, B. W. J. M. E. Demographic outcomes of diverse migration strategies assessed in a metapopulation of tundra swans. Mov Ecol. 4, 10, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-016-0075-8 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  123. Bengtsson, D. et al. Does influenza A virus infection affect movement behaviour during stopover in its wild reservoir host? R Soc Open Sci. 3, 150633, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150633 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  124. Klaassen, R. H., Strandberg, R., Hake, M. & Alerstam, T. J. B. E. & Sociobiology. Flexibility in daily travel routines causes regional variation in bird migration speed. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 62, 1427–1432, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40295171 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  125. Koks, B. et al. H_GRONINGEN—Western marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus, Accipitridae) breeding in Groningen (the Netherlands). Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), https://doi.org/10.15468/5124534e-2d9c-46b7-a857-e0012821526b (2025).

  126. Stienen, E. W., Müller, W., Lens, L., Milotic, T. & Desmet, P. LBBG_ADULT-Lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus, Laridae) breeding in Belgium. Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1262225 (2024).

  127. Stienen, E. W., Müller, W., Lens, L., Milotic, T. & Desmet, P. LBBG_JUVENILE-Juvenile lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus, Laridae) and herring gulls (Larus argentatus, Laridae) hatched in Zeebrugge (Belgium). Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16933166 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  128. Stienen, E. et al. LBBG_ZEEBRUGGE-Lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus, Laridae) breeding at the southern North Sea coast (Belgium and the Netherlands). Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12336021 (2020).

  129. Klaassen, R. H. et al. Loop migration in adult marsh harriers Circus aeruginosus, as revealed by satellite telemetry. Ecol. Evol. 41, 200–207 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  130. Anselin, A. et al. MH_WATERLAND–Western marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus, Accipitridae) breeding near the Belgium–Netherlands border. Zenodo Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10053583 (2025).

  131. Sorais, M. et al. Migration patterns and habitat use by molt migrant temperate‐breeding Canada geese in James Bay, Canada. Wildl. Biol. 2023, e01062, https://doi.org/10.1002/wlb3.01062 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  132. Gavashelishvili, A., McGrady, M., Ghasabian, M. & Bildstein, K. L. J. B. S. Movements and habitat use by immature Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) from the Caucasus. Bird Study 59, 449–462, https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2012.728194 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  133. Willemoes, M. et al. Narrow-front loop migration in a population of the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus, as revealed by satellite telemetry. PLoS One. 9, e83515, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083515 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  134. Bloom, P. H. et al. Northward summer migration of Red-tailed Hawks fledged from southern latitudes. J. Raptor Res. 49, 1–17 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  135. Hake, M., Kjellén, N. & Alerstam, T. J. J. O. A. B. Satellite tracking of Swedish Ospreys Pandion haliaetus: autumn migration routes and orientation. J. Avian Biol. 32, 47–56, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-048X.2001.320107.x (2001).

    Google Scholar 

  136. Köppen, U., Yakovlev, A. P., Barth, R., Kaatz, M. & Berthold, P. Seasonal migrations of four individual bar-headed geese from Kyrgyzstan followed by satellite telemetry. 151, 703-712, https://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-001M-0000-002C-2BD3-5 (2010).

  137. Brzorad, J. N. et al. Seasonal Patterns in Daily Flight Distance and Space Use by Great Egrets (Ardea alba). Waterbirds. 44, 343–355, https://doi.org/10.1675/063.044.0309 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  138. Strandberg, R., Klaassen, R. H. & Thorup, K. J. J. O. A. B. Spatio‐temporal distribution of migrating raptors: a comparison of ringing and satellite tracking. Avian Biol. 40, 500–510, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2008.04571.x (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  139. Korner, P., Sauter, A., Fiedler, W. & Jenni, L. J. A. B. Variable allocation of activity to daylight and night in the mallard. 115, 69-79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.02.026 (2016).

  140. Karwinkel, T. et al. Year-round spatiotemporal distribution pattern of a threatened sea duck species breeding on Kolguev Island, south-eastern Barents Sea. BMC Ecol. 20, 31, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-020-00299-2 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  141. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “(EBD) Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) Spain, MERCURIO-SUMHAL”, study ID 2970193504) on 1 March 2025.

  142. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Barn swallows breeding in Kraghede”, study ID 4201934806) on 1 March 2025.

  143. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “barTailedGodwit_USGS_ASC_argos”, study ID 1718959411) on 1 March 2025.

  144. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Bean Goose Anser fabalis Finnmark”, study ID 11223924) on 1 March 2025.

  145. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Bill Cochran Peregrine falcon migration 1973-75”, study ID 274355544) on 1 March 2025.

  146. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “BOP_RODENT - Rodent specialized birds of prey (Circus, Asio, Buteo) in Flanders (Belgium)”, study ID 1278021460) on 1 March 2025.

  147. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Bubulcus ibis_Vollot_ENVT_65_ID_PROG1035”, study ID 2915700754) on 1 March 2025.

  148. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Chicago BCNH Project (Druid)”, study ID 3902656356) on 1 March 2025.

  149. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Chicago BCNH Project”, study ID 2830157729) on 1 March 2025.

  150. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Common Crane 2020 (Lithuanian University of Educational Studies; LEU)”, study ID 1229945587) on 1 March 2025.

  151. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Common Cuckoo (A), Southern Sweden”, study ID 49915781) on 1 March 2025.

  152. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Common Cuckoo (C), Eastern Europe”, study ID 55252460) on 1 March 2025.

  153. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Corvus corone [ID_PROG 883]”, study ID 1266784970) on 1 March 2025.

  154. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “CURLEW_VLAANDEREN - Eurasian curlews (Numenius arquata, Scolopacidae) breeding in Flanders (Belgium)”, study ID 1841091905) on 1 March 2025.

  155. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “DELTATRACK - Herring gulls (Larus argentatus, Laridae) and lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus, Laridae) breeding at Neeltje Jans (Netherlands)”, study ID 1258895879) on 1 March 2025.

  156. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Egrets & Herons”, study ID 17469219) on 1 March 2025.

  157. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Forest Park Living Lab”, study ID 1605024900) on 1 March 2025.

  158. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “FTZ Geese Wadden Sea”, study ID 69724677) on 1 March 2025.

  159. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Graugans Zugverhalten Neusiedler See”, study ID 505156776) on 1 March 2025.

  160. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Great Cormorant Lake Constance MPIAB”, study ID 2988309) on 1 March 2025.

  161. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Gulls - Minsk”, study ID 2272852276) on 1 March 2025.

  162. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “gullSpecies_USGS_ASC_argosGPS”, study ID 1091848505) on 1 March 2025.

  163. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Habitrack European Turtle Dove”, study ID 3413045568) on 1 March 2025.

  164. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Herring Gulls (Larus Argentatus); Ronconi; Kent Island, Canada”, study ID 1071101052) on 1 March 2025.

  165. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Herring Gulls (Larus Argentatus); Ronconi; Sable Island, Canada”, study ID 1080341737) on 1 March 2025.

  166. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “HG_OOSTENDE - Herring gulls (Larus argentatus, Laridae) breeding at the southern North Sea coast (Belgium)”, study ID 986040562) on 1 March 2025.

  167. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “HUJ MPIAB White Stork GSM 2013”, study ID 10449698) on 1 March 2025.

  168. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “HUJ MPIAB White Stork GSM E-Obs”, study ID 7002955) on 1 March 2025.

  169. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Cuckoo Holland”, study ID 1539583795) on 1 March 2025.

  170. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Mongolia cuckoos Nymba”, study ID 1542155599) on 1 March 2025.

  171. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Pacific Coast Peregrine”, study ID 1748399252) on 1 March 2025.

  172. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Turkey Cagan”, study ID 1541820092) on 1 March 2025.

  173. e data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Turtle doves”, study ID 1542192442) on 1 March 2025.

  174. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Lake Constance Ducks”, study ID 2927282) on 1 March 2025.

  175. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Larus heuglini_1”, study ID 1445058753) on 1 March 2025.

  176. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Larus michahellis X Larus cachinnans hybrids”, study ID 2190520177) on 1 March 2025.

  177. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack - Evros Delta”, study ID 8927992) on 1 March 2025.

  178. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack Ducks Lake Constance”, study ID 236953686) on 1 March 2025.

  179. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Greece Evros Delta”, study ID 10449535) on 1 March 2025.

  180. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Loburg”, study ID 10449318) on 1 March 2025.

  181. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Moscow”, study ID 10596067) on 1 March 2025.

  182. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Poland”, study ID 10763606) on 1 March 2025.

  183. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Sarralbe [ID_PROG 1093]”, study ID 1562253659) on 1 March 2025.

  184. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork South Africa”, study ID 8008999) on 1 March 2025.

  185. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Tunisia”, study ID 10157679) on 1 March 2025.

  186. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack White Stork Uzbekistan”, study ID 9493881) on 1 March 2025.

  187. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack Whooper Swan Latvia”, study ID 92261778) on 1 March 2025.

  188. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MEDGULL_ANTWERPEN - Mediterranean gulls (Ichthyaetus melanocephalus, Laridae) breeding near Antwerp (Belgium)”, study ID 1609400843) on 1 March 2025.

  189. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MH_ANTWERPEN - Western marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus, Accipitridae) breeding near Antwerp (Belgium)”, study ID 938783961) on 1 March 2025.

  190. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Milvus migrans”, study ID 892924356) on 1 March 2025.

  191. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB White Stork Greece Argos”, study ID 446659) on 1 March 2025.

  192. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB white stork lifetime tracking data (2013-2014)”, study ID 74496970) on 1 March 2025.

  193. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB White Stork Oriental Argos”, study ID 446663) on 1 March 2025.

  194. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB White Stork Prinzesschen”, study ID 1898591) on 1 March 2025.

  195. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB White Stork South African Population Argos”, study ID 446667) on 1 March 2025.

  196. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “NC Breeding ABDU”, study ID 1404033416) on 1 March 2025.

  197. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Osprey Bierregaard North and South America”, study ID 8868155) on 1 March 2025.

  198. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Pandion haliaetus Osprey - SouthEast Michigan”, study ID 10204361) on 1 March 2025.

  199. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Peregrine Falcon - NYSDEC”, study ID 6459871) on 1 March 2025.

  200. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Poultry network China 2022”, study ID 1909487338) on 1 March 2025.

  201. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Poultry network Thailand 2022”, study ID 1879445455) on 1 March 2025.

  202. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Sarus Crane, van Zalinge, Cambodia”, study ID 47450376) on 1 March 2025.

  203. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Satellite tracking of Goosander in Scotland”, study ID 2526306516) on 1 March 2025.

  204. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Seaducks in the Fehmarn Belt (southern Baltic)”, study ID 1962595) on 1 March 2025.

  205. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Shelduck Italy ISPRA MPIAB”, study ID 1963631608) on 1 March 2025.

  206. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Solovki Larus Track”, study ID 312267867) on 1 March 2025.

  207. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “SPOONBILL_VLAANDEREN - Eurasian spoonbills (Platalea leucorodia, Threskiornithidae) in Flanders (Belgium)”, study ID 2313947453) on 1 March 2025.

  208. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Tracking of Caspian Terns (Hydroprogne caspia) in the Swedish Baltic Sea 2017-2020”, study ID 1575973021) on 1 March 2025.

  209. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Variability of White Stork flight patterns prior to earthquakes”, study ID 1498452485) on 1 March 2025.

  210. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Wader migration German Wadden Sea: bar-tailed godwits”, study ID 5666500) on 1 March 2025.

  211. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “whimbrel_USGS_ASC_argos”, study ID 854852176) on 1 March 2025.

  212. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “White stork Ciconidae Western Poland”, study ID 1252230318) on 1 March 2025.

  213. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “White-tailed Eagle Poland.”, study ID 384868221) on 1 March 2025.

  214. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Yellow-legged Gulls”, study ID 1724475305) on 1 March 2025.

  215. Welzl, E. Smallest enclosing disks (balls and ellipsoids). New Results and New Trends in Computer Science 359–370 (Springer, 1991).

  216. Petersen, M. R. & Douglas, D. C. Data from: At-sea distribution of spectacled eiders: a 120-year-old mystery resolved. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.kq7t609j (2016).

  217. Sherub, S., Wikelski, M., Fiedler, W. & Davidson, S. C. Data from: Behavioural adaptations to flight into thin air. Movebank data repositor, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.143v2p2k (2016).

  218. Efrat, R., Hatzofe, O., Mueller, T., Sapir, N. & Berger-Tal, O. Data from: Early life and acquired experiences interact in shaping migratory and flight behaviors. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.298 (2023).

  219. Bildstein, K. L., Barber, D. & Bechard, M. J. Data from: Environmental drivers of variability in the movement ecology of turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) in North and South America. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.46ft1k05 (2014).

  220. Lislevand, T., Hahn, S., Rislaa, S. & Briedis, M. Data from: First records of complete annual cycles in water rails Rallus aquaticus show evidence of itinerant breeding and a complex migration system. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.761jk64n (2020).

  221. Pedersen, L., Jackson, K., Thorup, K. & Tøttrup, A. P. Data from: Full-year tracking suggests endogenous control of migration timing in a long-distance migratory songbird. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.7mf48770 (2018).

  222. Jeglinski, J. W. E. et al. Data from: HPAIV outbreak triggers short‐term colony connectivity in a seabird metapopulation. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.607 (2024).

  223. Meier, C. M., Buchmann, M. & Liechti, F. Data from: Locally adapted migration strategies: Comparing routes and timing of northern wheatears from alpine and lowland European populations [Austria]. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.tn4h3kt0 (2022).

  224. Meier, C. M., Rime, Y. & Liechti, F. Data from: Locally adapted migration strategies: Comparing routes and timing of northern wheatears from alpine and lowland European populations [Switzerland]. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.tn4h3kt0 (2022).

  225. Sherub, S. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Longer days enable higher diurnal activity for migratory birds [Himalayan griffons]. Movebank data repositor, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.4n2501f5 (2021).

  226. Tøttrup, A. P., Pedersen, L., Onrubia, A. & Thorup, K. Data from: Migration of red-backed shrikes from the Iberian Peninsula: optimal or sub-optimal detour? Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.32m2335q (2017).

  227. Hill, J. M. & Renfrew, R. B. Data from: Migration patterns of upland sandpipers in the western hemisphere. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.3pt25757 (2019).

  228. Moore, J. D. et al. Data from: Migration phenology and patterns of American woodcock in central North America derived using satellite telemetry. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.8764q39q (2021).

  229. Exo, K.-M., Hillig, F. & Bairlein, F. Data from: Migration routes and strategies of Grey Plovers (Pluvialis squatarola) on the East Atlantic Flyway as revealed by satellite tracking. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.vv0ft02m (2019).

  230. Spiegel, O. M. et al. Data from: Moving beyond curve-fitting: using complementary data to assess alternative explanations for long movements of three vulture species. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.8c56f72s (2015).

  231. Pedersen, L. et al. Data from: Remarkably similar migration patterns between different red-backed shrike populations suggest that migration rather than breeding area phenology determines the annual cycle. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.4bt7365c (2020).

  232. Buechley, E. R. & Şekercioğlu, C. A. A. H. Data from: Satellite tracking a wide‐ranging endangered vulture species to target conservation actions in the Middle East and East Africa. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.385gk270 (2019).

  233. Léandri-Breton, D.-J., Lamarre, J.-F. O. & Bety, J. Data from: Seasonal variation in migration strategies used to cross ecological barriers in a Nearctic migrant wintering in Africa. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.f01v7r80 (2019).

  234. Pedersen, L., Nina Munkholt, J., Strandberg, R., Thorup, K. & Tøttrup, A. P. Data from: Sex-specific difference in migration schedule as a precursor of protandry in a long-distance migratory bird. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.j71640kh (2019).

  235. Batbayar, N., Galtbalt, B., Natsagdorj, T., Sukhbaatar, T. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Mongolia.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.598 (2024).

  236. Ilyashenko, E. I. et al. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Russia. Altai.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.596 (2024).

  237. Ilyashenko, E. I. et al. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Russia. Taman. Azov.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.594 (2024).

  238. Ilyashenko, E. I. et al. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Southern Kazakhstan.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.591 (2024).

  239. Andryushchenko, Y., Pokrovsky, I., Bernd, V., Fiedler, W. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “1000 Cranes. Ukraine.”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.590 (2024).

  240. Mallory, M. L., Craik, S., Allard, K. A. & Gutowsky, S. Data from: Study “American Herring Gulls - GPS - Lobster Bay, Southwest Nova Scotia, Canada”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.292 (2023).

  241. Meier, C. M., Peev, S. G. & Liechti, F. Data from: Study “Bulgaria Sofia - Long term study on migratory movement of Alpine swifts (Apus melba)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.7kd62k00 (2020).

  242. Smith, J. P. Data from: Study “HawkWatch International Golden Eagles”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.95r77m9k (2019).

  243. Powell, A. N., Oppel, S. & McGuire, R. Data from: Study “King Eider Alaska (UAF / USGS)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.339 (2024).

  244. Batbayar, N., Galtbalt, B., Natsagdorj, T., Sukhbaatar, T. & Wikelski, M. Data from: Study “LifeTrack Mongolia Demoiselle cranes”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.599 (2024).

  245. Seyer, Y., Gauthier, G. & Lecomte, N. Data from: Study “Long-tailed Jaeger - GLS - Canadian Arctic”. Movebank data repositor, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.558kn337 (2022).

  246. Škrábal, J., Literák, I. & Raab, R. Data from: Study “Milvus_milvus_Soaring_over_Adriatic_sea”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.300 (2023).

  247. Schweitzer, S., Bryan, A. L., Jr., Brzorad, J. & Kays, R. Data from: Study “NC Wood Stork Tracking”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.303 (2023).

  248. d’Entremont, K. J. N., Davoren, G. K. & Montevecchi, W. A. Data from: Study “Northern Gannet Breeding Season GPS Data from Cape St. Mary’s, NL, Canada: 2019 to 2022”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.5km7v2s3 (2023).

  249. Meier, C. M., Aymí, R. & Liechti, F. Data from: Study “Spain Tarragona - Long term study on migratory movement of Alpine swifts (Apus melba)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.96t76sg0 (2020).

  250. Meier, C. M. & Liechti, F. Data from: Study “Switzerland Lenzburg - Long term study on migratory movement of Alpine swifts (Apus melba)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.31v444sc (2020).

  251. Meier, C. M., Karaardıç, H. & Liechti, F. Data from: Study “Turkey Pirasali - Long term study on migratory movement of Alpine swifts (Apus melba)”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.34k562m5 (2020).

  252. Bildstein, K. L., Barber, D., Bechard, M. J., Graña Grilli, M. & Therrien, J.-F. Data from: Study “Vultures Acopian Center USA GPS” (2003-2021). Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.f3qt46r2 (2021).

  253. Basille, M. et al. Data from: Study “Wood stork (Mycteria americana) Southeastern US 2004–2019”. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.r0h6725k (2021).

  254. Lisovski, S. et al. Data from: The Indo-European Flyway: opportunities and constraints reflected by common rosefinches breeding across Europe. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.034jj41h (2021).

  255. Reznikov, K., Efrat, R., Berger-Tal, O. & Sapir, N. Data from: The spatiotemporal properties of artificial feeding schemes influence the post-fledging movement of Egyptian Vultures. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.318 (2024).

  256. Davenport, L. C., Goodenough, K. S. & Haugaasen, T. Data from: Trans-Andean and divergent migration of Black Skimmers (Rynchops niger cinerascens) from the Peruvian Amazon. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.bs0s09c8 (2016).

  257. Brust, V., Schmaljohann, H. & Hüppop, O. Data from: Two subspecies of a songbird migrant optimise departure from a coastal stopover with regard to weather and the route lying ahead. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.7nv75953 (2022).

  258. Korpach, A. M. et al. Data from: Urbanization and artificial light at night reduce the functional connectivity of migratory aerial habitat. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.242g6p0r (2023).

  259. Burgess, M. D. et al. Data from: Weak migratory connectivity, loop migration and multiple non-breeding site use in British breeding Whinchats Saxicola rubetra. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.4c7h5d1g (2020).

  260. Senner, N. et al. Data from: When Siberia came to The Netherlands: the response of continental black-tailed godwits to a rare spring weather event. Movebank Data Repository, https://doi.org/10.5441/001/1.m3b75054 (2015).

  261. Ramey, A. & Hatch, S. Argos and GPS Satellite Tracking Data for Three Large-Bodied Gull Species and Hybrids (Larus spp.)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2020).

  262. Tibbitts, T. L. & Page, G. W. W. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Long-billed Curlews (Numenius americanus)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2024).

  263. Petersen, M., Sexson, M. & Douglas, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2020).

  264. Ward, D., Esler, D. & Boyd, W. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Surf Scoters (Melanitta perspicillata)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2020).

  265. Hatch, S., Meyers, P. & DM, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Thick-billed Murres (Uria lomvia)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2020).

  266. Schmutz, J., Uher-Koch, B. & Douglas, D. Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Yellow-billed Loons (Gavia adamsii)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2019).

  267. DeLuca, W. V. et al. A boreal songbird’s 20,000 km migration across North America and the Atlantic Ocean. Ecology 100, e02651, https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2651 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  268. Strandberg, R., Klaassen, R. H., Hake, M., Olofsson, P. & Alerstam, T. J. P. o. t. R. S. B. B. S. Converging migration routes of Eurasian hobbies Falco subbuteo crossing the African equatorial rain forest. Proc Biol Sci. 276, 727–733, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1202 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  269. Spiegel, C. et al. Determining fine-scale use and movement patterns of diving bird species in federal waters of the mid-Atlantic United States using satellite telemetry. Vol. 69, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26412.36480 (2017).

  270. Nourani, E., Vansteelant, W. M., Byholm, P. & Safi, K. J. B. l. Dynamics of the energy seascape can explain intra-specific variations in sea-crossing behaviour of soaring birds. Biol Lett. 16, 20190797, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0797 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  271. Hallworth, M. T. et al. Habitat loss on the breeding grounds is a major contributor to population declines in a long-distance migratory songbird. Proc Biol Sci. 288, 20203164, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.3164 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  272. McCloskey, S. E., Uher-Koch, B. D., Schmutz, J. A. & Fondell, T. F. J. P. O. International migration patterns of Red-throated Loons (Gavia stellata) from four breeding populations in Alaska. PLoS One. 13, e0189954, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189954 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  273. Lisovski, S. et al. Light‐level geolocator analyses: A user’s guide. J Anim Ecol. 89, 221–236, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13036 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  274. Yanco, S. W. et al. Migratory birds modulate niche tradeoffs in rhythm with seasons and life history. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 121, e2316827121, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2316827121 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  275. McIntyre, C. L., Douglas, D. C. & Collopy, M. W. J. T. A. Movements of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from interior Alaska during their first year of independence. Auk. 125, 214–224, https://doi.org/10.1525/auk.2008.125.1.214 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  276. Beason, J. P., Gunn, C., Potter, K. M., Sparks, R. A. & Fox, J. W. J. T. W. J. O. O. The Northern Black Swift: Migration path and wintering area revealed. Wilson J. Ornithol. 124, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1676/11-146.1 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  277. Dokter, A. et al. O_BALGZAND - Eurasian oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus, Haematopodidae) wintering on Balgzand (the Netherlands). Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10053932 (2025).

  278. Kolk, H. et al. O_VLIELAND-Eurasian oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus, Haematopodidae) breeding and wintering on Vlieland (the Netherlands). Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), https://doi.org/10.15468/cd15902d-3ded-41c2-893d-8840e146cbb3 (2025).

  279. Briedis, M. et al. Seasonal variation in migration routes of Common Whitethroat Curruca communis. J. Ornithol. 166, 29–38, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-024-02204-w (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  280. Puehringer-Sturmayr, V. et al. Space use and site fidelity in the endangered Northern Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita: Effects of age, season, and sex. Bird Conserv Int. 33, e10, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270922000053 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  281. Pratte, I., Ronconi, R. A., Craik, S. R. & McKnight, J. J. E. S. R. Spatial ecology of endangered roseate terns and foraging habitat suitability around a colony in the western North Atlantic. Endang Species Res. 44, 339–350, https://doi.org/10.3354/ESR01108 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  282. Harrison, A. L., Woodard, P. F., Mallory, M. L. & Rausch, J. J. E. & Evolution. Sympatrically breeding congeneric seabirds (Stercorarius spp.) from Arctic Canada migrate to four oceans. Proc. R. Soc. B. 12, e8451, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8451 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  283. Lisovski, S., Gosbell, K., Hassell, C. & Minton, C. J. W. S. Tracking the full annual-cycle of the Great Knot, Calidris tenuirostris, a long-distance migratory shorebird of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway. Wader Study. 123, https://doi.org/10.18194/ws.00048 (2016).

  284. DeLuca, W. V. et al. Transoceanic migration by a 12 g songbird. Ecology 100, e02651, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.1045 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  285. Martin, P. D. O. & Douglas, T. US Fish and Wildlife Service Argos Satellite Tracking Data for Steller’s Eiders (Polysticta stelleri)-Raw Data. U.S. Geological Survey (2022).

  286. Grilli, M. G., Lambertucci, S. A., Therrien, J. F. & Bildstein, K. L. J. J. O. A. B. Wing size but not wing shape is related to migratory behavior in a soaring bird. J. Avian Biol. 48, 669–678, https://doi.org/10.1111/jav.01220 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  287. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “(EBD) Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) Senegal, MERCURIO-SUMHAL”, study ID 2398637362) on 1 March 2025.

  288. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “(EBD) Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) Spain, MERCURIO-SUMHAL”, study ID 2961927604) on 1 March 2025.

  289. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “A case of home range analysis of Japanese Sparrowhawks during the nestling period”, study ID 2116900796) on 1 March 2025.

  290. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Annual Movements of Bicknell’s Thrush (Catharus bicknelli) from Light-level Geolocation”, study ID 1416160002) on 1 March 2025.

  291. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Blackbird Czechia ICARUS TinyFox 2022”, study ID 2434921399) on 1 March 2025.

  292. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Broad-winged Hawk habitat use, range, and movement ecology”, study ID 28691134) on 1 March 2025.

  293. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Brown Pelican Raccoon Island LA 2014-2017”, study ID 581719332) on 1 March 2025.

  294. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “BTO - Whinnyfold 2021 - Kittiwake”, study ID 4447816442) on 1 March 2025.

  295. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Caspian Gulls - Poland”, study ID 1208105916) on 1 March 2025.

  296. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “CLSW_Nebraska_2022”, study ID 2611337538) on 1 March 2025.

  297. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Common Snipe GPS-GSM logger Poland-Russia”, study ID 924418031) on 1 March 2025.

  298. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Common Whitethroat, Latvia”, study ID 4310399048) on 1 March 2025.

  299. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Dendrocygna bicolor movement from Mexico City Manuel Grosselet”, study ID 3186161092) on 1 March 2025.

  300. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Griffon Vulture Albstadt Salzburg (Gypsi)”, study ID 326568799) on 1 March 2025.

  301. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Honey Buzzard Care Centre Release S Germany”, study ID 1701931040) on 1 March 2025.

  302. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “ICARUS Ascension Island Government”, study ID 1531481854) on 1 March 2025.

  303. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Ivory gull N Greenland 2018/19”, study ID 1123149708) on 1 March 2025.

  304. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “KIRA SW LA”, study ID 4739876185) on 1 March 2025.

  305. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Lapwing NFW Vanellus Vanellus”, study ID 1448409403) on 1 March 2025.

  306. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack Bald Eagle”, study ID 20873986) on 1 March 2025.

  307. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “LifeTrack Griffon Vulture Croatia”, study ID 154820583) on 1 March 2025.

  308. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Long-billed Curlew Migration from the Intermountain West”, study ID 42451582) on 1 March 2025.

  309. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “marbledGodwit_USGS_ASC_argos”, study ID 547404600) on 1 March 2025.

  310. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Milvus_milvus_atlantismarcuard”, study ID 672882373) on 1 March 2025.

  311. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “MPIAB Griffon Vulture Argos”, study ID 446571) on 1 March 2025.

  312. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Northern Bald Ibis - Konrad Lorenz Research Station 2016”, study ID 185780950) on 1 March 2025.

  313. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “O_ASSEN - Eurasian oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus, Haematopodidae) breeding in Assen (the Netherlands)”, study ID 1605797471) on 1 March 2025.

  314. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “O_WESTERSCHELDE - Eurasian oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus, Haematopodidae) breeding in East Flanders (Belgium)”, study ID 1099562810) on 1 March 2025.

  315. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Purple martin Progne subis movement ecology in southern Quebec”, study ID 1910442974) on 1 March 2025.

  316. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Purple martin Progne subis movement ecology in southern Quebec”, study ID 1958514115) on 1 March 2025.

  317. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Raptors NABU Moessingen public”, study ID 186178781) on 1 March 2025.

  318. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Richard’s Pipit (Anthus richardi)”, study ID 1720094461) on 1 March 2025.

  319. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Rough-legged Buzzard in variable environment”, study ID 944655375) on 1 March 2025.

  320. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “rynchops niger”, study ID 3218698288) on 1 March 2025.

  321. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Sabine’s Gulls in the Juan de Fuca Eddy”, study ID 304527187) on 1 March 2025.

  322. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Saxicola rubetra Western Lusatia/Germany”, study ID 1668665047) on 1 March 2025.

  323. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Semipalmated Sandpiper movement and habitat use in Northeast Brazil”, study ID 1996135412) on 1 March 2025.

  324. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Short-eared Owl & Northern Harrier - NYSDEC”, study ID 6250087) on 1 March 2025.

  325. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis) Bulgaria”, study ID 1830874036) on 1 March 2025.

  326. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Spotted eagles NE Poland”, study ID 384882516) on 1 March 2025.

  327. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Surf Scoter (Diving Bird Study)”, study ID 3360767360) on 1 March 2025.

  328. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Surfbird_UAF_BLM_InteriorAlaska”, study ID 3945977313) on 1 March 2025.

  329. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “TBMUCOMU.GastonMontevecchi.NWAtlantic”, study ID 14381504) on 1 March 2025.

  330. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Thick-billed murre Elliott Coats 2010”, study ID 248994009) on 1 March 2025.

  331. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Thick-billed murre Elliott Coats 2011”, study ID 249266943) on 1 March 2025.

  332. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Thick-billed murre Elliott Coats 2013”, study ID 376145741) on 1 March 2025.

  333. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Thick-billed murre Gaston PLI 2014”, study ID 394802766) on 1 March 2025.

  334. The data used in this study were accessed from Movebank (movebank.org, study name “Thick-billed murre Gilchrist and Elliott Coats 2016”, study ID 287187244) on 1 March 2025.

  335. Katoh, K. & Standley, D. M. MAFFT multiple sequence alignment software version 7: improvements in performance and usability. Mol. Biol. Evol 30(4), 772–780, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/mst010 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by grants from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFC2604403), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82103901), the Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province, China (2025-BS-0952), and the Fund of State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity (SKLPBS2205). We gratefully acknowledge all bird tracking data contributors, i.e., the authors and other researchers in their originating groups responsible for collecting the data and metadata and sharing via Movebank, on which this research is based. We thank all principal investigators and their research teams for making their valuable tracking datasets publicly available under various Creative Commons licenses and custom terms. The complete list of data contributors, including principal investigators, contact persons, citations, data repository DOIs, and specific license agreement types, is provided in “Tracking data sources.xlsx” available via figshare55. We also gratefully acknowledge all authors of published studies who contributed to sharing information in the literature, as much of our data compilation and analyses were made possible by the availability of their published work.

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Jun Ma, Yan-He Wang, Yun-Bo Qiu.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, the Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 561113, P. R. China

    Jun Ma, Yun-Bo Qiu, Yun Han, Qing-Jie Wang, Long-Tao Chen, Sheng Zhang, Feng Hong & Li-Qun Fang

  2. State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, 100071, P. R. China

    Jun Ma, Yun-Bo Qiu, Jin-Jin Chen, Yun Han, Yan Zhang, Sheng-Hong Lin, Qing-Jie Wang, Long-Tao Chen, Xin-Jing Zhao, Sheng Zhang, Tian Tang, Yao Tian, Yu-Feng Yang, Qiang Xu, Zi-Da Meng, Chen-Long Lv, Guo-Lin Wang & Li-Qun Fang

  3. The 968th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force of PLA, Jinzhou, Liaoning, P. R. China

    Yan-He Wang

  4. Department of Clinical Laboratory, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, P. R. China

    Jin-Jin Chen

Authors
  1. Jun Ma
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yan-He Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yun-Bo Qiu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jin-Jin Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Yun Han
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Yan Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Sheng-Hong Lin
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Qing-Jie Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Long-Tao Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Xin-Jing Zhao
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Sheng Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Tian Tang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Yao Tian
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Yu-Feng Yang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Qiang Xu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Zi-Da Meng
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  17. Chen-Long Lv
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  18. Guo-Lin Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  19. Feng Hong
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  20. Li-Qun Fang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All the authors in the author list were involved in this paper’s preparation and writing process, and all of them agreed to be responsible for all aspects of the research paper. L.Q.F. and F.H. designed this study; J.M., Y.H.W., Y.B.Q., J.J.C., Y.H., Z.Y., S.H.L., Q.J.W., L.T.C., X.J.Z., S.Z., T.T., Y.T., and Y.F.Y. performed experiments; J.M. analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript; J.M., Y.H.W., Q.X., and Z.D.M. contributed analysis methods and tools; Y.H.W., Y.B.Q., J.J.C., C.L.L., and G.L.W. provided administrative guidance in this study; J.M., L.Q.F. and F.H. wrote the original draft. All of the authors reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Feng Hong or Li-Qun Fang.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ma, J., Wang, YH., Qiu, YB. et al. A global dataset of spatiotemporal co-occurrence patterns of avian influenza virus-associated migratory birds. Sci Data (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-026-06701-w

Download citation

  • Received: 28 April 2025

  • Accepted: 23 January 2026

  • Published: 03 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-026-06701-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Download PDF

Advertisement

Explore content

  • Research articles
  • News & Comment
  • Collections
  • Follow us on Twitter
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed

About the journal

  • Aims and scope
  • Editors & Editorial Board
  • Journal Metrics
  • Policies
  • Open Access Fees and Funding
  • Calls for Papers
  • Contact

Publish with us

  • Submission Guidelines
  • Language editing services
  • Open access funding
  • Submit manuscript

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Find a job
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Scientific Data (Sci Data)

ISSN 2052-4463 (online)

nature.com sitemap

About Nature Portfolio

  • About us
  • Press releases
  • Press office
  • Contact us

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Articles by subject
  • protocols.io
  • Nature Index

Publishing policies

  • Nature portfolio policies
  • Open access

Author & Researcher services

  • Reprints & permissions
  • Research data
  • Language editing
  • Scientific editing
  • Nature Masterclasses
  • Research Solutions

Libraries & institutions

  • Librarian service & tools
  • Librarian portal
  • Open research
  • Recommend to library

Advertising & partnerships

  • Advertising
  • Partnerships & Services
  • Media kits
  • Branded content

Professional development

  • Nature Awards
  • Nature Careers
  • Nature Conferences

Regional websites

  • Nature Africa
  • Nature China
  • Nature India
  • Nature Japan
  • Nature Middle East
  • Privacy Policy
  • Use of cookies
  • Legal notice
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms & Conditions
  • Your US state privacy rights
Springer Nature

© 2026 Springer Nature Limited

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing