Table 1 Algorithm parameter settings.

BAS¹⁴

alph = 0.95, \(\delta\), d0 need to be adjusted by the ranges of functions

WOA³

b = 1, pop = 50

PSO²

C1 = 2, C2 = 2, w_start = 0.9, w_end = 0.4, pop = 50

LABAS²⁰

pop = 50, \(\delta\), d0 need to be adjusted by the ranges of functions

IBAS²³

m_step = 1, \(\delta\), d0 need to be adjusted by the ranges of functions

BSAS¹⁹

alph = 0.95, p = 0.1, pop = 50, \(\delta\), d0 need to be adjusted by the ranges of functions

ENBAS²²

pop = 50, \(\delta\), d0 need to be adjusted by the ranges of functions

ABSAS-CS-GSA

pop = 50, \(\lambda\) = 0.1