Fig. 7

Evolution of material properties in fracture healing from FE simulation. Rows a and b showcase the progressive changes in tissue stiffness (E), especially around the cortical bones and beneath the plate, leading to hard callus formation with stiffness of 10–40 MPa by day 21, highlighting the model’s ability to capture the dynamic nature of bone healing. Row c shows MSCs Migration and Concentration in Fracture Healing Simulation. Row c demonstrates MSCs migration from high concentration areas towards the outer regions of the fracture site, with significant cell accumulation noted beneath the plate by day 7. It highlights the dynamic distribution of MSCs critical for tissue transformation, reaching saturation around days 7 to 14, and the diminishing impact of further MSC distribution on the healing process beyond this point. Lastly, Row d shows FE Simulation of Vascularization in Fracture Healing. Illustrates vessel density changes and oxygen supply via diffusion, showing blood vessel network development in the callus by day seven and gradual stabilization of vascularization to normal levels by days 14 to 21, highlighting the importance of vascular growth and oxygenation in the healing process.