Introduction

Examinations have historically shaped the trajectories of individuals by providing certain opportunities and excluding others, influencing different stakeholders and social dynamics1. Social implications of language testing have recently been studied, addressing concerns such as gatekeeper roles, ethical considerations, policy choices and wider impacts2,3,4. Samuel Messick’s work on validity has highlighted the importance of considering the social consequences of tests and introduced the concept of consequential validity or impact5,6. The Messick model involves interpreting test results and their actual use, reflecting the social and cultural values underlying the specific interpretations of the tests. Despite some validity paradigms that distance themselves from social questions, McNamara and Roever argue for the recognition of the social function of tests and stress that the field of validity must be looked at in a different way from that of validity theory7,8,9. This paper uses “impact” and “consequences” instead of consequential validity.

McNamara and Roever10 examined three aspects of the application of tests: the intended consequences, the actual consequences and the social and cultural values underlying the design and application of the tests. These aspects apply to the Chinese National English Examination (NMET), one of the three compulsory examinations for admission to university in China. The NMET, which is administered to millions of high school students every year, includes listening, grammar and vocabulary, reading, editing and guided writing10. Introduced nationwide in 1992, the NMET was intended to replace the previous examination, which did not take into account reliability, validity or equity considerations10. The aim of NMET was to provide fair, reliable and valid university admission criteria, while promoting positive learning of English by emphasizing the use of the language in practice rather than by studying it11.

Given the high-stakes nature of NMET, emotions play a key role in shaping the learning experience of both students and teachers. The emotional dimensions of high-stakes tests affect motivation, classroom dynamics and the well-being of teachers. Recent research has highlighted the importance of emotions in the educational setting and their influence on teacher learning and teaching practices2,6.

Sue et al.12 conducted a survey to collect 202 college students’ perceptions on the washback effect of the listening test of College English Test Band 4 (CET4) on students’ self-regulated learning (SRL) and used SPSS 25.0 for data analysis. The findings indicated that most participants agreed that the CET 4 listening test positively affected their SRL attitudes, learning approaches, and learning habits. Additionally, some participants believed that the difficulty of the CET 4 listening test exceeded their expectations, resulting in a negative washback effect on their English learning. The findings of this study proposed relevant implications for enhancing the positive washback effect of CET 4 exams on students, and they offer corresponding suggestions for CET 4 teaching and learning in higher education12.

It is also believed that teachers experience intense pressure for their students to excel in the NMET, influencing their professional standing, promotions, and evaluations13. This competitive teaching-to-the-test approach can sideline long-term educational goals. However, while some argue for beneficial washback, suggesting that testing motivates learning and instils discipline15, negative repercussions on students are evident. Students often view test preparation as synonymous with education, leading to adverse psychological and physical effects, including myopia and cases of suicide14,15,16,17,18.

Similarly, Ross and Wang19 argue that the CEE is a socio-cultural product mirroring and shaping social realities. The historical context of China’s long-standing tradition of examination-based selection, exemplified by the Imperial Examinations, underscores the intertwined nature of testing and education in the country19. This historical entanglement means that tests in China serve a dual role: selecting and educating simultaneously19.

Therefore, mitigating negative and enhancing positive impacts requires a nuanced approach beyond simple test reforms. The identified issues necessitate further research and increased transparency regarding proposed reforms7. Involving stakeholders, including test-takers, teachers, parents, and the public, in data gathering and reform proposals is vital, as they are directly impacted by tests and potential changes20. Recent improvements in providing scholars and the public access to planned reforms in China illustrate progress in this regard17.

While much research has examined the washback effects of high-stakes testing on students, relatively less attention has been given to the role of teacher cognition, attitudes, and beliefs in shaping educational outcomes. Teacher cognition refers to the mental processes underlying teachers’ instructional decisions, while attitudes and beliefs influence how they perceive and implement assessment practices. Understanding these factors is critical in evaluating how teachers navigate high-stakes testing environments17,18,19,20.

The impetus behind undertaking a phenomenographic study on the cognitions of Chinese EFL teachers concerning the consequences of high-stakes tests is rooted in the pressing need to comprehend educators’ perspectives within the Chinese educational landscape. High-stakes tests, exemplified by the NMET, wield considerable influence on students, teachers, and the entire educational system. As key architects of the learning environment, teachers hold pivotal roles in shaping students’ responses to these assessments. Hence, exploring their cognitions becomes imperative to gain valuable insights into how educators perceive and navigate the educational, social, and psychological impacts linked to high-stakes testing.

Firstly, teachers’ cognitions significantly mould their instructional practices. Understanding how they perceive the consequences of high-stakes tests illuminates their approaches to teaching, potentially emphasizing specific skills or aspects aligned with the test, thereby shaping students’ learning experiences. Secondly, acknowledging the potential impact of high-stakes tests on teachers’ well-being is crucial. Moreover, teachers’ perspectives contribute valuable data to inform educational policies. A nuanced understanding of how teachers perceive the consequences of high-stakes tests can offer insights into the effectiveness, challenges, and areas of improvement in current testing practices, thereby influencing policy decisions. Lastly, this study addresses the gap in the existing literature where the focus predominantly centres on student experiences and outcomes, leaving teachers’ perspectives, especially within the Chinese EFL context, to be explored.

Furthermore, the study builds on previous research by incorporating insights from comparative studies on teacher beliefs and assessment practices (Gao et al., 2022), enhancing the understanding of the broader implications of high-stakes testing. By addressing these gaps, the study aims to enrich the wider discourse on educational assessment, policy formulation, and teacher well-being in the context of high-stakes testing. Therefore, to fill in this gap, the following research questions were addressed:

  1. 1.

    What are Chinese EFL teachers’ cognitions of the positive consequences of high-stakes tests?

  2. 2.

    What are Chinese EFL teachers’ cognitions of the negative consequences of high-stakes tests?

Review of literature

Teachers’ beliefs, assessment practices, and innovation

Teachers’ personal beliefs, attitudes, and cognitions about assessment practices shape their instructional decisions and vary widely across educational contexts21. Drawing on Fishbein and Ajzen’s21 theoretical framework, personal beliefs are understood as individuals’ information and evaluations concerning objects, people, and practices. This section synthesizes literature examining how teachers’ beliefs influence their choice of assessment purposes, preferred methods, openness to innovation, and attitudes toward quality assurance processes.

Borg22 underscores that teachers’ beliefs strongly influence how they implement assessment in classrooms. One major area of differentiation lies in the purpose of assessment — whether formative (focused on learning improvement) or summative (centered on grading and certification). Brown, Lake, and Matters23, in a study of Queensland primary school teachers, report a dominant preference for formative assessments. This aligns with findings from Antoniou and James24, who observed a similar trend among Cypriot educators, highlighting a shared belief in assessment as a tool for supporting student learning.

Teachers’ preferences for assessment methods also reveal diversity in beliefs. Leighton et al.25 found that secondary school teachers in Alberta favored classroom-developed assessments due to their diagnostic value. In contrast, Gullickson26 reported a tendency among teachers in rural Midwestern U.S. states to favor traditional tests, reflecting beliefs that such tools more reliably measure student achievement. These differences suggest that teachers’ assessment choices are shaped not only by pedagogical goals but also by contextual factors and cultural expectations.

In the context of innovation, studies show that beliefs about teaching identity — whether traditional or progressive — significantly impact the adoption of innovative assessment methods. Xu and Liu27 describe an EFL college teacher who preferred traditional tests, revealing a resistance to alternative assessment formats. Conversely, Schwager and Carlson28 observed that educators identifying as innovative were more open to implementing diverse assessment strategies. This cultural variation is further explored in Cheng et al.’s29 comparative study, which found that ESL/EFL university teachers in Canada used more innovative assessments than their counterparts in China and Hong Kong.

Furthermore, Donitsa-Schmidt30 emphasizes the predictive role of teacher beliefs in the actual use of innovative assessments, reinforcing the notion that cognition and practice are interlinked. This is consistent with broader findings in the literature suggesting that beliefs are central to the adoption of pedagogical change.

Attitudes toward quality assurance procedures add another dimension to this discourse. While Gullickson26 noted skepticism among teachers about the practicality of statistical analyses in assessment, more recent research by King31 indicates a shift toward more favorable attitudes, particularly among educators with administrative responsibilities. This evolution suggests that growing familiarity with educational data may be reshaping teachers’ perceptions of accountability and quality assurance.

Critical and language assessment literacy

The need for more research on Critical Assessment Literacy (CAL) is highlighted, with only two empirical investigations32,33 exploring its practical implications. Tahmasebi and Yamini33 utilize Shohamy’s (2001b) CAL framework to examine the influence of stakeholders on the Iranian University Entrance Examinations (IUEE). Javidanmehr and Rashidi32 aim to implement Shohamy’s CAL principles practically, emphasizing the importance of incorporating learners’ perspectives into the assessment process34,35,36.

Rezaei et al.37 elucidated the perspectives of Iranian university educators on the foundational aspects of Language Assessment Literacy (LAL). Through a phenomenographic analysis of semi-structured interviews, their study identified two overarching domains within LAL: knowledge and skills. The knowledge included digital LAL, ethical standards, performance assessment, student variance recognition, assessment validity, test reliability, and pedagogical content knowledge. Skills encompassed engaging students in assessment, utilizing alternative methods, judicious use of traditional methods, feedback provision, standardized testing, valid grading procedures, and fostering positive washback effects.

Tajedin et al.38 developed and validated a Critical Language Assessment Literacy (CLAL) scale to further underscore the role of CAL principles in teachers’ LAL. Their study involved exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha reliability testing, identifying five key factors: teachers’ knowledge of assessment objectives, consequences, fairness, policies, and national ideology.

Research gaps and focus on Chinese EFL teachers

The reviewed studies provide valuable insights into teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and cognitions regarding assessment practices across different contexts. However, more research should focus on Chinese EFL teachers’ cognitions regarding high-stakes tests. While studies like Rezaei et al.37 and Allahyari et al.39 explore language assessment literacy and the social and psychological implications of tests, they do not address the unique context of Chinese EFL teachers. Additionally, previous research has often centred on student outcomes and experiences, leaving teachers’ perspectives underexplored.

This study aims to fill this gap by employing a phenomenographic approach to explore the qualitatively different ways Chinese EFL teachers perceive and make sense of a broad spectrum of consequences related to high-stakes tests like the NMET. Focusing on the educational, social, and psychological impacts from teachers’ perspectives, this research provides a more comprehensive understanding of how high-stakes testing influences teaching practices, teacher well-being, and broader educational policies in China. This focus on Chinese EFL teachers’ cognitions represents a significant departure from the existing literature, which has predominantly concentrated on Western educational contexts or general assessments rather than high-stakes tests in specific cultural settings.

Methodology

LAL is known as a multifaceted and intricate phenomenon susceptible to diverse interpretations across various individuals and contexts. To comprehensively capture this diversity, this study adopted a phenomenographic approach for data collection. Phenomenography, as suggested by Cresswell and Poth40, is a fitting qualitative methodology for unveiling a collective perspective on a specific phenomenon. Marton41 defines phenomenography as exploring the qualitatively distinct ways individuals experience, conceptualize, perceive, and comprehend various aspects and phenomena in their surroundings (p. 31). Marton41 further notes that it strives to “discover and systematize ways of thinking that synthesize how people interpret different aspects of reality.

Participants

A purposive sampling method was employed to select a sample of 30 university instructors specializing in critical applied linguistics language (n = 12) and language assessment (n = 18). Purposive sampling was chosen as it enables researchers to pinpoint, select, and categorize data-rich cases within the qualitative paradigm42. The participants comprised 20 male university teachers (67%) and ten female ones (33%). Their teaching experiences varied from 5 to 15 years (50%), 16 to 20 years (25%), to 21 to 30 years (25%). Notably, we continued data collection until data saturation, signifying the time the information became repetitive and participants no longer contributed new insights. The inclusion criteria for participants were as follows: (1) university instructors with a minimum of five years of teaching experience in critical applied linguistics or language assessment, (2) active engagement in teaching and research within their respective specialization areas, (3) willingness to participate in in-depth interviews, and (4) proficiency in English, as the study was conducted in English.

Ethical considerations

The ethical approval committee of the Henan Institute of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade approved this study. It issued a letter indicating no side effects on the participants. Relevant guidelines and regulations carried out in all experiments and methods. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Instruments and data collection procedures

To gather data, Marton and Booth43 outlined a phenomenographic semi-structured interview. This method was chosen because it aligns with the study’s aim of exploring participants’ perceptions of test consequences in depth. The semi-structured interview format was particularly suitable as it allows for flexibility in probing responses while focusing on key themes, enabling the capture of diverse and nuanced perspectives.

The interview checklist was developed through a comprehensive literature review on test impact, washback, and consequences, drawing on existing theories, frameworks, and instruments for measuring these constructs. To ensure the checklist’s validity, two language assessment specialists Henan Institute of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade reviewed and validated it, focusing on its alignment with fundamental concepts of test consequences. Based on their feedback, vague or problematic items were revised or eliminated.

The semi-structured interviews began with an open-ended question: “What does test consequence mean to you?” This approach allowed participants to express their views, providing rich, context-specific insights freely. The first researcher posed subsequent questions from the checklist, with occasional supplementary questions to elicit more detailed responses (see Appendix A). The interviews were conducted in English because all the interviewees were expert in English language. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed meticulously.

To enhance the diversity of perspectives, interviews were conducted in various temporal and spatial contexts. Participants were interviewed in their offices, lasting approximately 40 to 60 min. The semi-structured interview method fulfilled unique purposes by balancing structured inquiry with the flexibility to explore emerging themes, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of participants’ perceptions.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed using Marton’s41 phenomenographic approach, which aims to uncover the qualitatively different ways individuals experience and understand a phenomenon—in this case, the positive and negative consequences of high-stakes tests as perceived by teachers. The analysis followed a structured, multi-stage process involving coding, categorization, and validation. In the initial stage, researchers conducted a thorough reading of all interview transcripts to identify recurring expressions and meaning units in participants’ language. Initial codes were developed directly from participants’ own words, reflecting their beliefs, emotional reactions, and professional reflections related to high-stakes testing. For example:

A teacher stating, “These tests help me identify exactly where students are falling behind” was coded as “identification of learning gaps.”

Another participant noted, “Our school gained a better reputation after the test scores improved,” which was coded as “enhanced school reputation.”

In contrast, a teacher who commented, “I spend most of my time teaching to the test instead of exploring real learning,” was coded as “teaching to the test.” Another saying, “Some students cry the night before—they’re terrified of failing,” was coded as “test-related anxiety.”

As coding progressed, the constant comparative method was applied. Codes were grouped into basic themes and then clustered into broader axial themes under two overarching selective codes: positive consequences and negative consequences of high-stakes testing. Each selective code was composed of three major domains: educational, social, and psychological.

Reliability and validity measures

To enhance the trustworthiness of the data analysis, two researchers independently conducted concurrent coding, yielding an inter-rater reliability coefficient of 0.90. Any discrepancies in coding were resolved through collaborative deliberation. To further ensure the accuracy and credibility of the findings, member checking and respondent validation techniques were implemented. Emergent constructs and conceptual categories were subjected to peer debriefing through review by three independent analysts. Additionally, participants were provided with detailed summaries for their verification, commentary, and affirmation of interpretive accuracy. The incorporation of participant feedback and subsequent revisions ensured that the derived constructs authentically represented participants’ intended meanings, thereby reinforcing the credibility of the analysis in accordance with Lincoln and Guba’s (44) member-checking criteria.

Results and discussion

Teachers’ cognitions of positive consequences of high-stakes tests

Interviews with 30 informants were thematically analyzed, which were reduced to three sub-categories in Table 1.

Table 1 Teachers’ cognitions of positive consequences of high-stakes tests.
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Positive educational consequences

The positive impact of data-driven insights on education is multifaceted, encompassing various dimensions that contribute to improving educational processes and outcomes. In this discussion, we explore five distinct themes under the umbrella of positive educational consequences. Each theme shapes the academic landscape, fosters accountability, enhances quality, identifies learning gaps, promotes teacher development, and ensures curricular alignment. The following sections will delve into these themes, explaining and exemplifying the tangible benefits of incorporating data-driven approaches in education. These insights shed light on the effectiveness of educational practices and underscore the significance of leveraging data to create a more robust and student-centric learning environment.

Educational accountability

Educational accountability refers to the system’s capacity to track and evaluate the effectiveness of educational processes and outcomes. It involves holding institutions, administrators, and teachers responsible for their contributions to student development, with the goal of ensuring transparency and fostering continuous improvement in educational practices. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 10, who stated, “Educational accountability ensures transparency and encourages continuous improvement in educational practices.” Similarly, informant 15 noted, “Accountability mechanisms in education help maintain high standards and motivate educators to consistently deliver quality teaching.”

These perspectives highlight a shared belief among teachers that high-stakes tests contribute meaningfully to educational accountability. This finding is consistent with existing literature, which emphasizes the role of such assessments in holding schools and educators accountable for educational quality2,3. Teachers perceive these assessments as tools that uphold academic standards and promote improvements in teaching and learning outcomes.

Improved educational quality

Improved educational quality signifies enhancements in the overall standard of education, encompassing teaching methodologies, resources, and learning environments. It aims to provide students with a more enriching and practical learning experience, promoting academic growth. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 12, who noted, “A focus on improved educational quality leads to a more enriching and effective learning experience for students, fostering their academic growth.” Additionally, informant 18 stated, “When we invest in educational quality, we ensure that students receive the best possible education, which is crucial for their future success.” Teachers perceive high-stakes tests as catalysts for enhancing the quality of education. This aligns with the notion that such assessments drive schools and educators to focus on improving instructional methods and delivery to meet the demands of high-stakes testing6. The literature supports that high-stakes tests can positively change teaching practices and curriculum development, improving educational quality7.

Identification of learning gaps

Identifying learning gaps involves using data-driven insights to pinpoint areas where students are struggling. This enables educators to tailor interventions and provide targeted support, addressing specific weaknesses and ensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed. This theme is illustrated by quotations from informant 11, who emphasized, “Identifying learning gaps allows for targeted interventions, ensuring that no student is left behind in their educational journey.” Similarly, informant 19 remarked, “Through precise identification of learning gaps, educators can provide the necessary support to help students overcome their challenges and achieve their full potential.” This finding aligns with previous studies that highlight the diagnostic potential of high-stakes assessments in identifying areas where students may require additional support and intervention8,9.

Positive teacher development

Positive teacher development refers to educators’ continuous growth and improvement through data-informed practices. It empowers teachers with valuable information to refine their teaching strategies and adapt to the evolving needs of students. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 5, who emphasized, “Data-driven insights contribute to positive teacher development, empowering educators with valuable information to refine their teaching strategies and adapt to the evolving needs of students.” Likewise, informant 14 noted, “Ongoing professional development is crucial for teachers to stay updated with the latest educational practices and improve their instructional methods.” Teachers perceive high-stakes tests as opportunities for their professional growth. The literature suggests that engagement with high-stakes assessments can lead to teacher reflection and adaptation of instructional strategies, fostering continuous professional development10.

Curricular alignment

Curricular alignment ensures that educational objectives, assessments, and instructional strategies are harmonized to achieve desired learning outcomes. It creates a coherent and effective educational experience for students by aligning the curriculum with data-driven insights. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 8, who asserted, “Aligning the curriculum with data-driven insights ensures coherence and relevance, creating a more coherent and effective educational experience for students.” Furthermore, informant 20 stated, “A well-aligned curriculum helps in achieving consistency in teaching and learning, which is essential for student success.” Teachers also recognize the role of high-stakes tests in aligning classroom instruction with established curricular standards. This finding is consistent with the literature, emphasizing the importance of curricular alignment to ensure that instructional goals align with assessment expectations11.

Positive social consequences

The positive social consequences of high-stakes testing in education extend beyond the classroom, influencing various aspects of the societal landscape. These consequences include recognition and reward, increased parental involvement, motivated students, positive school culture, and enhanced reputation.

Recognition and reward

Recognition and reward refer to the acknowledgement and incentives that schools and educators receive based on their performance in high-stakes tests. This recognition often comes in the form of public acclaim and tangible rewards. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 1, who noted, “The impact of high-stakes tests on schools and educators receiving public recognition and rewards is significant”.

Recognizing schools and educators for their accomplishments fosters a culture of excellence, motivating continued dedication to educational success.” Similarly, informant 7 mentioned, “Public recognition and rewards for high performance in tests can boost morale and encourage educators to strive for excellence.” The theme of Recognition and Reward reflects teachers’ beliefs that high-stakes tests contribute to the recognition and reward of their efforts. This aligns with studies suggesting teachers may receive acknowledgement and rewards based on students’ performance in high-stakes assessments12,13.

Increased parental involvement

High-stakes testing can positively influence parental involvement by prompting parents to engage more actively in their child’s education. This often leads to parents participating in school activities, attending parent-teacher conferences, and monitoring their child’s academic progress. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 9, who stated, “The impact of high-stakes tests on increasing parental involvement is significant”.

When parents are aware of their child’s academic performance, they are more likely to participate in their educational journey, fostering a collaborative home-school relationship.” Informant 13 also highlighted, “Parents become more invested in their children’s education when they see the direct impact of test results on their academic progress.” Teachers perceive that high-stakes tests can lead to greater parental involvement in students’ education. Existing research suggests that high-stakes assessments can catalyze improved communication between schools and parents, fostering a collaborative educational environment14.

Motivated students

The impact of high-stakes tests on motivating students to engage more deeply in their studies is crucial. The stakes associated with these assessments can inspire students to put forth more significant effort, set higher academic goals, and take their studies more seriously. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 5, who emphasized, “High-stakes tests contribute to motivated students who are driven to excel academically. The awareness of the consequences associated with these tests encourages students to invest time and energy into their studies, promoting a culture of academic excellence.” Similarly, informant 22 noted, “Students often rise to the challenge of high-stakes tests, which can lead to improved academic performance and a stronger commitment to their education.” As suggested by some researchers15,16, teachers believe that high-stakes tests motivate students to excel academically. The literature supports the idea that assessments perceived as high-stakes can positively influence students’ motivation and engagement.

Positive school culture

High-stakes testing can contribute to developing a positive school culture. When educators, students, and parents collectively value and prioritize academic achievement, it fosters a positive atmosphere within the school. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 21, who stated, “I believe the impact of high-stakes tests on contributing to a positive school culture is significant. The shared commitment to educational goals creates a supportive environment, enhancing the overall educational experience for everyone involved.” Informant 26 also remarked, “A positive school culture centered around academic excellence can inspire students and staff to perform their best.”

Enhanced school reputation

The impact of high-stakes tests on schools gaining a positive reputation is a notable consequence. Schools with consistently strong performance in these assessments often enjoy a favourable reputation within the community. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 25, who stated, “The positive reputation gained through high-stakes testing can attract more students and support from the community”. It reflects the school’s commitment to academic excellence and positions it as a leading institution in the educational landscape.” Informant 28 added, “A strong reputation for academic success can bring numerous benefits to a school, including increased funding and community support.”

Positive psychological consequences

The psychological consequences of high-stakes testing on students delve into the intricate realm of emotions, perceptions, and self-perception. Within this domain, five sub-themes emerge, each influencing students’ psychological well-being and attitudes toward learning. These sub-themes include the sense of achievement, goal setting and planning, increased confidence, motivation for lifelong learning, and positive reinforcement.

Sense of achievement

The sense of achievement refers to the emotional and cognitive recognition of success in high-stakes tests, contributing to students’ feelings of competence and accomplishment. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 17, who noted, “I believe the impact of success on high-stakes tests on students’ sense of achievement and competence is significant”. When students achieve positive results, it not only validates their efforts but also instills a sense of pride and accomplishment, fostering a positive psychological outlook.” Similarly, informant 29 mentioned, “Achieving high scores in tests gives students a sense of accomplishment, which can boost their self-esteem and confidence in their abilities.”

Goal setting and planning

High-stakes testing can influence students to set academic goals and engage in thoughtful planning to achieve those goals. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 8, who expressed concern: “The impact of high-stakes tests on encouraging students to set academic goals and plan their studies is significant. Students often recognize the need to strategize and plan their studies effectively to perform well in these assessments, promoting a proactive and goal-oriented approach to learning.” Informant 23 also stated, “High-stakes tests encourage students to think critically about their academic goals and create effective study plans to achieve them.” Teachers believe high-stakes tests encourage students to set academic goals and engage in strategic planning. Existing research supports that high-stakes assessments can shape students’ goal-setting behaviours18.

Increased confidence

Positive results on high-stakes tests can significantly impact students’ confidence levels. The recognition of their academic abilities boosts self-assurance, empowering them in their educational journey. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 27, who highlighted, “I believe the impact of positive results on high-stakes tests on enhancing students’ confidence is significant. The confidence gained through academic success extends beyond the test, positively influencing students’ overall approach to learning and problem-solving.” Additionally, informant 24 noted, “When students see their hard work reflected in test scores, it boosts their confidence and encourages them to tackle future challenges with more assurance.” This theme suggests that teachers perceive high-stakes tests as contributing to students’ increased confidence in their academic abilities. This aligns with studies indicating that success in high-stakes assessments can positively impact students’ self-efficacy and confidence19.

Motivation for lifelong learning

The success mindset cultivated by high-stakes tests can motivate students for lifelong learning. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 30, who stated, “The impact of the success mindset fostered by high-stakes tests on cultivating motivation for lifelong learning is significant. Students who experience success in these assessments often develop a passion for continuous learning, recognizing the value of education beyond specific tests or grades.” Informant 11 also mentioned, “High-stakes testing can instill a love for learning in students, encouraging them to pursue knowledge throughout their lives.” “Motivation for lifelong learning” is identified as a sub-theme, reflecting teachers’ belief that high-stakes tests can instil in students motivation for continuous learning beyond the immediate academic context. Existing literature suggests that assessments perceived as high-stakes can contribute to a positive attitude towards lifelong learning20.

Mositive reinforcement

Recognition and rewards for high-stakes test achievements positively influence students’ attitudes toward learning. This theme is supported by quotations from informant 16, who underscored, “I believe the impact of recognition and rewards for high-stakes test achievements on providing positive reinforcement is significant. Tangible rewards and acknowledgement are powerful motivators, reinforcing positive behaviors and attitudes towards academic achievement.” Similarly, informant 14 stated, “Positive reinforcement from high-stakes test success can motivate students to continue striving for excellence in their academic pursuits.” Teachers generally believe that high-stakes tests provide positive reinforcement for students’ efforts and achievements. This finding aligns with the literature, highlighting positive reinforcement’s role in promoting desirable academic behaviours21.

Teachers’ cognitions of negative consequences of high-stakes tests

Interviews with 30 informants were thematically analyzed, which were reduced to three sub-categories in Table 2.

Table 2 Teachers’ cognitions of negative consequences of high-stakes tests.
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Negative educational consequences

While high-stakes testing in education is designed to bring about positive outcomes, it also carries negative consequences that warrant careful consideration. In this exploration, we will delve into five educational negative consequences associated with high-stakes testing. These consequences include narrowed curriculum, teaching to the test, pressure on students, and learning loss. Each aspect challenges the educational landscape and demands attention to mitigate potential adverse effects. The subsequent sections will examine each educational negative consequence in-depth, offering insights into high-stakes testing concerns.

A narrow curriculum was the first to extract negative educational consequences. The impact of high-stakes tests leading to a narrowed curriculum is a significant concern. Informant 2 expresses worry, stating, “High-stakes tests, when given excessive importance, may prompt educators to focus disproportionately on test-related content, limiting the breadth of the curriculum. This narrowing effect can impede students’ exposure to diverse subjects and skills, hindering their overall educational development.” The second negative theme was thematically coded teaching to the test. The concern over educators teaching content directly related to the test and sacrificing a more comprehensive educational experience is significant. Informant 6 notes, “I believe the impact of educators teaching to the test is significant. The pressure to align teaching closely with test content may compromise the richness of educational experiences, neglecting important aspects of critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills.”

The third negative consequence was thematically coded pressure on students. The concern over the pressure on students to perform well on high-stakes tests leading to heightened stress levels is significant. Informant 4 notes, “I believe the impact of the pressure on students is significant. The stakes associated with these tests may create an environment of intense competition, fostering anxiety and affecting students’ mental health.” Finally, informants argued that learning loss is another negative educational consequence. The impact of high-stakes tests resulting in learning loss is a significant concern. Informant 5, “High-stakes tests, when not aligned with effective teaching strategies, may contribute to learning loss. The emphasis on rote memorization and test-specific skills may detract from a deeper understanding of concepts, hindering long-term retention and application of knowledge.”

Generally speaking, teachers expressed apprehensions about a narrow curriculum within the educational domain, indicating that the emphasis on tested content might compromise the breadth of academic material. This finding resonates with prior research, emphasizing the potential limitations high-stakes testing imposes on the overall curriculum13,16,26. Additionally, teaching to the test emerged as a concern, suggesting that educators may feel pressured to align their teaching exclusively with test requirements, potentially hindering a more comprehensive educational experience9,15,36.

Negative social consequences

The social consequences of high-stakes testing extend beyond the individual and classroom level, influencing broader social dynamics within the educational system. This exploration will examine five negative social consequences of high-stakes testing. These consequences include the stigmatization of low performers, strained teacher-student relationships, inequity and bias, competition over collaboration, and the impact on the school community. Each of these aspects raises concerns about the potential adverse effects of high-stakes testing on the social fabric of the educational environment. The following sections will examine each social negative consequence in-depth, offering insights into the concerns surrounding high-stakes testing.

Stigmatization of low performers was the first negative social consequence. The impact of poor performance on high-stakes tests resulting in stigmatization is a significant concern. Informant 18 notes, “High-stakes tests can inadvertently lead to the stigmatization of low performers, creating a divide within the student body. The emphasis on test scores as a measure of success may contribute to negative perceptions and labels, affecting students’ self-esteem and social interactions.”

The strained teacher-student relationship was the second negative social consequence. The concern over the pressure to excel on high-stakes tests straining teacher-student relationships is significant. Informant 19 observes, “The intense focus on test outcomes may strain the natural dynamics of teacher-student relationships. The pressure to achieve specific results may lead to a transactional approach, impacting these crucial relationships’ supportive and nurturing aspects.” Moreover, inequity and bias were mentioned as other negative social consequences. The impact of high-stakes tests exacerbating educational inequality is a significant negative consequence. Informant 24 expresses worry: “High-stakes testing can inadvertently amplify existing inequities in the educational system. Factors such as socioeconomic status, access to resources, and diverse learning styles may not be adequately considered, contributing to biased outcomes and perpetuating educational disparities.”

Moreover, competition over collaboration was mentioned by a large number of participants. The concern over the focus on individual high-stakes test scores fostering a competitive rather than collaborative environment is significant. Informant 21 notes, “I believe the impact of the emphasis on individual test scores is significant. The competitive nature that may arise can hinder opportunities for collaboration among students, fostering an environment that prioritizes personal achievement over collective learning.” Finally, a significant concern is the impact of high-stakes test pressure on the atmosphere of a tense school community. Informant 9 underscores this, saying, “High-stakes testing, when accompanied by intense pressure and competition, may impact the overall atmosphere of the school community. Tensions arising from the emphasis on results may hinder a collaborative and supportive educational environment.”

In summary, in the social dimension, teachers voiced worries about the stigmatization of low performers, expressing concerns about how high-stakes tests might lead to labelling and marginalization. Strained Teacher-Student Relationships were another prevalent theme, reflecting fears that the pressure associated with high-stakes testing could strain the dynamics between educators and students. These social consequences align with existing literature, highlighting the potential for high-stakes tests to exacerbate educational inequities and negatively impact the teacher-student relationship10,29,38.

Negative psychological consequences

High-stakes tests, while designed to assess academic proficiency, can exert significant negative psychological consequences on individuals, particularly students. This exploration will delve into seven prevalent adverse psychological effects associated with high-stakes testing. These consequences include increased stress and anxiety, fear of failure, test-related phobia, reduced intrinsic motivation, negative self-perception, pressure to conform, narrowed educational experience, and teacher burnout. Each aspect sheds light on the potential psychological toll that high-stakes testing may have on students and educators, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their impact.

High-stakes tests often induce heightened stress levels among students, stemming from the pressure and expectations of these assessments. Excessive stress and anxiety can impair cognitive function, hinder effective problem-solving during the test, and negatively influence overall mental well-being. Informant 12 expresses concern, stating, “The pressure from high-stakes tests can create an environment where students experience heightened stress and anxiety, impacting not only their performance but also their mental health.”

Fear of failure was reported as the second negative psychological consequence. The high stakes attached to these tests may instil a pervasive fear of failure in students, leading to heightened apprehension about the potential impacts of not performing well. Participants also believe that fear of failure can be demotivating, affect self-esteem and foster a negative perception of one’s abilities and prospects. Informant 8 notes, “The fear of failure induced by high-stakes testing can have profound psychological effects, influencing students’ perceptions of themselves and their abilities.” Informants also mentioned that some students may develop a specific phobia related to tests, experiencing persistent and irrational fear that interferes with their ability to perform. Test-related phobia can also lead to avoidance behaviour, hindering students from reaching their academic potential and negatively affecting their mental well-being. This theme is supported by informant 27, who underscores the issue, stating, “Test-related phobia is a genuine concern, as it can significantly impede a student’s ability to showcase their true capabilities during assessments.”

Reduced intrinsic motivation and negative self-perception were the other two negative psychological consequences. The emphasis on external rewards and punishments tied to high-stakes tests may diminish students’ intrinsic motivation for learning. Informants believe that students may shift their focus from enjoying the learning process to solely achieving high scores, potentially decreasing their natural curiosity and passion for learning. For instance, informant 16 expresses concern: “Reduced intrinsic motivation is a potential consequence of high-stakes testing, potentially affecting students’ long-term engagement with education.” Moreover, poor performance on high-stakes tests may lead to a negative self-perception, where students question their intelligence and capabilities. Negative self-perception can erode confidence, demoralize students, and contribute to a cycle of self-doubt that impacts their overall mental well-being. Informant 4 emphasizes the issue: “Negative self-perception resulting from high-stakes testing can have lasting effects on students’ confidence and self-esteem.”

Narrowed educational experience and teacher burnout were the last two extracted themes, as suggested by the informants. Teaching to the test and a narrowed curriculum may limit students’ exposure to various subjects and diverse learning experiences. Restricting educational content to what is tested can hinder the development of critical thinking skills, creativity, and a holistic understanding of subjects. For example, informant 11 expresses concern: “Narrowed educational experiences resulting from high-stakes testing may undermine the broader goals of education, limiting students’ opportunities for well-rounded development.” Finally, teachers may experience burnout due to the pressure to prepare students for high-stakes tests, potentially affecting their mental health and job satisfaction. Moreover, teacher burnout can lead to reduced effectiveness in the classroom, negatively impacting the overall learning environment. Informant 23 underscores the issue: “The pressure on teachers to navigate the demands of high-stakes testing can contribute to burnout, impacting the quality of education they provide.”

The psychological realm encompassed various concerns, including increased stress and anxiety, Fear of Failure, and Test-Related Phobia among students. Teachers also expressed worries about reduced intrinsic motivation, negative self-perceptions, and the potential for a narrowed educational experience. These psychological challenges underscore the broader impact of high-stakes testing on students’ and teachers’ well-being and motivation. Existing literature supports these findings, indicating that the pressure associated with high-stakes tests can have detrimental effects on mental health and motivation7,14,32. In conclusion, the negative consequences associated with high-stakes tests, as perceived by teachers, encompass a range of educational, social, and psychological dimensions. These concerns emphasize the need for a nuanced understanding of the potential drawbacks of such assessments and the importance of considering alternative approaches that mitigate these negative impacts.

Discussion

The findings of this study highlight the significant negative consequences of high-stakes testing in education, encompassing educational, social, and psychological dimensions. These findings align with existing literature and provide critical insights into the broader implications of such assessments.

The study underscores concerns about a narrowed curriculum, teaching to the test, student pressure, and learning loss. These concerns are consistent with prior research, which suggests that high-stakes testing often leads to a constrained educational experience by prioritizing tested subjects at the expense of a well-rounded curriculum1,2. The phenomenon of teaching to the test has been widely documented, with research indicating that educators feel compelled to focus on test-related content, thus limiting opportunities for fostering critical thinking and creativity3,4. Moreover, heightened pressure on students has been associated with adverse academic outcomes, including anxiety-induced performance declines and disengagement from learning5. Learning loss, as identified by informants, is also a critical issue, with studies showing that excessive emphasis on test preparation can impede deep learning and long-term knowledge retention6.

As revealed in this study, high-stakes testing’s social ramifications include stigmatization of low performers, strained teacher-student relationships, inequity and bias, competition over collaboration, and negative impacts on school communities. Prior literature supports these findings, highlighting the potential for standardized testing to disproportionately affect disadvantaged students, thereby reinforcing educational inequities7,8. The pressure to achieve high scores may also alter teacher-student interactions, shifting the focus from holistic education to performance-driven relationships9. Additionally, the competitive nature fostered by high-stakes testing can discourage cooperative learning, a critical component of student development10. The broader school community may experience increased tension and reduced morale due to the overwhelming emphasis on test performance11.

The study also identifies significant psychological effects, including increased stress and anxiety, fear of failure, test-related phobia, reduced intrinsic motivation, negative self-perception, narrowed educational experiences, and teacher burnout. These findings align with existing research indicating that high-stakes assessments contribute to elevated stress levels, impairing cognitive function and hindering academic performance12,13. Fear of failure and test-related phobia further exacerbate these adverse effects, leading to avoidance behaviours and diminished confidence14. Reduced intrinsic motivation is a crucial concern, as the shift toward extrinsic rewards has undermined students’ natural curiosity and engagement with learning15. Additionally, studies suggest that teacher burnout, driven by pressure to prepare students for high-stakes assessments, can decrease instructional effectiveness and job dissatisfaction16.

Conclusions

This study reveals the positive and negative consequences of high-stakes testing across educational, social, and psychological dimensions. On the positive side, teachers perceive these assessments as fostering educational accountability, improving educational quality, identifying learning gaps, supporting teacher development, and ensuring curricular alignment. Social benefits include increased parental involvement, student motivation, positive school culture, and enhanced school reputation. However, significant negative consequences also emerge. Educationally, high-stakes testing narrows the curriculum, promotes teaching to the test, increases student pressure, and leads to learning loss. Socially, it contributes to the stigmatization of low performers, strained teacher-student relationships, inequities, competition over collaboration, and stress within school communities. Psychologically, these assessments heighten stress and anxiety, foster a fear of failure, reduce intrinsic motivation, impact self-perception, and contribute to teacher burnout.

Implications

These findings have different implications, calling for a reconsideration of current assessment policies. Educational stakeholders must recognize the detrimental effects of high-stakes testing and explore alternative assessment methods that promote a more balanced and inclusive learning environment. Formative assessments, portfolio-based evaluations, and performance-based assessments have been proposed as viable alternatives to mitigate the negative consequences of high-stakes testing17. Additionally, policies should be restructured to emphasize student well-being, equity, and comprehensive skill development rather than mere test performance.

From a social perspective, mitigating the stigmatization of low-performing students and fostering collaboration over competition is critical. Schools should implement policies that support at-risk students rather than penalizing them for test performance. Strengthening teacher-student relationships through mentorship and personalized feedback can also help create a more supportive learning environment.

Educational systems must psychologically address student and teacher well-being by integrating stress management programs, mental health resources, and professional development initiatives to reduce burnout. Moreover, creating a culture that values holistic learning over performance metrics can improve student motivation and engagement.

Strength and limitations

Strengths

One of the main strengths of this study is its phenomenological approach, which is well suited to capturing the complex and diverse experience of Chinese EFL teachers in high-stakes testing. The study provides a rich insight into teachers’ perspectives through in-depth interviews that go beyond mere quantitative data collection. Focusing on positive and negative effects also allows for a balanced analysis, recognising the duality of the effects of high-stakes testing, including educational, social and psychological dimensions. This comprehensive approach increases the relevance of the study for policy makers and educators, who can use the findings to design evaluation strategies that mitigate negative outcomes and leverage potential benefits.

Limitations

Despite its strengths, the study has several limitations. The sample, limited to 30 Chinese EFL teachers, may not fully represent the diversity of perspectives in the wider EFL teaching community, especially those from different regions or educational contexts. Moreover, qualitative studies may lack the universality of more extensive quantitative analyses, which makes it difficult to extrapolate findings to other educational systems or cultures. Finally, reliance on self-reported interview data may introduce bias, as teachers’ responses may be influenced by social desirability or personal experience, which may affect the objectivity of the findings.

These limitations suggest that further research using different methods and larger samples may be needed to validate and extend the results. In order to address these limitations, future research in this area should focus on larger and more diverse samples, including teachers from different disciplines and cultures.

Using a mixed method combining qualitative findings with quantitative measures could increase the robustness of the study and provide a more complete picture of teacher perceptions. Longitudinal studies to track the impact of high-stakes testing over time could provide insight into the evolving perceptions and experiences of teachers.

Furthermore, comparative studies across different educational systems and contexts contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the positive and negative consequences of high-stakes testing. Exploring potential variations in cognitions based on factors such as teaching experience, educational levels, or geographic locations could deepen our understanding of the complexities involved. Addressing these suggestions in future research endeavours will contribute to a more holistic comprehension of the implications of high-stakes testing on educators.