Introduction

Citizen journalism enables individuals to generate and disseminate news content outside of traditional media institutions. While it has democratized information flows, it also poses challenges in terms of content authenticity and source verification. These issues are particularly relevant in crisis situations, where false or manipulated reports can cause harm. Existing platforms offer limited tools for verifying the spatial and temporal context of user-generated content, which motivates the need for new trust-enhancing mechanisms.

Citizen journalism, also known as participatory journalism, is a form of media content creation where citizens actively gather, analyze, and disseminate information. As Noor1 noted, it is characterized by greater audience engagement and typically occurs outside the structures of traditional media. In recent years, citizen journalism has significantly developed due to the widespread availability of the internet and mobile technologies, which facilitate the rapid flow of information and opinions2. In the digital age, any internet user can become a broadcaster, making citizen journalism a popular way to supplement and verify traditional media. Citizens equipped with smartphones and access to social media are often the first to report on important events, especially in crisis situations or where media access is restricted3. Syahputra and Ritonga4 highlight how social media platforms like Twitter contribute to the development of citizen journalism in Indonesia, enabling quick and widespread dissemination of information.

Current trends in citizen journalism indicate an increasing use of digital tools for data collection, information visualization, and the creation of multimedia content. Mahamed, Omar, and Tamam5 analyze how citizen journalism enables rural communities to gather and report news, as well as facilitate the reporting of their issues and interests. In the context of the GeoNewsChain project, citizen journalism can be a valuable complement. Integrating blockchain technology can provide greater credibility and transparency in citizen journalism, supporting the verification of sources and content created by users. Additionally, the use of GNSS and satellite data can facilitate precise location and tracking of events reported by citizens.

In the era of digitalization, the profession of journalism is evolving, presenting professionals with new challenges and requirements. Modern journalists must not only adapt to the rapid pace of technological changes but also meet increasing expectations for speed, accuracy, and reliability in reporting. On the one hand, GNSS enables precise tracking and real-time reporting of events, while on the other hand, blockchain enhances data transparency and security.

Understanding and appropriately meeting the needs of media platform users is crucial. Journalists, as the primary users of such platforms, rely on various sources of information to gather, verify, and present news and information. These sources include interviews and witnesses, official documents and reports, materials from news agencies and other media, databases and archives, social media and online forums, direct observations, leaks and anonymous sources, press conferences, and public events.

In the context of creating a new media platform, understanding these requirements is essential. Research such as that conducted by Almabrouka, Adnan, and Sarmiti6 on investigative journalism methodologies in the Arab world highlights the importance of adapting practices to local cultural and political conditions. Pearson7 emphasizes the importance of training and empathy in information gathering, especially in traumatic situations, while Simunjak and Menke8 examine organizational and social support for journalists, highlighting the emotional challenges associated with journalistic work. Porlezza9 focuses on the challenges related to the use of artificial intelligence in media. Yetimova10 analyzes the cultural aspects of journalistic practices in the context of reporting on earthquakes in Turkey, while Ulum and Al-Ansi11 focus on the impact of information manipulation by the tabloid press in India. Heravi and McGinnis12 investigate the use of semantic technologies in journalism, while Struk13 analyzes the perception of Tolstoy in émigré journalism. Nwanakwaugwu et al.14 study the use of drones in digital journalism, and Scott15 focuses on the role of data leaks in investigative journalism. Miscione and Landert16 analyze how journalism evolves with available communication technologies and the impact of platforms like WikiLeaks on journalistic practices.

Verification of information is a crucial element of the journalistic process, ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and objectivity of the news being communicated. The methods employed by journalists for this purpose are varied and comprehensive, considering the dynamic and often complex nature of information today. Checking multiple sources allows for confirmation of information from different perspectives, which increases its credibility. Fact-checking and data verification involve confirming details such as dates, names, or statistics using official reports, databases, and specialized agencies. Here are some fundamental methods journalists use to verify information:

  • Checking Multiple Sources: Journalists strive to obtain information from various, independent sources. If several credible sources independently confirm the same information, it increases its reliability.

  • Fact-Checking and Data Verification: Journalists verify facts, dates, names, statistics, and other detailed data. This can be done using databases, official reports, archives, and services from specialized fact-checking agencies.

  • Consulting Experts: Journalists often consult with experts in a given field to verify technical, scientific, or specialized information.

  • Assessing Source Credibility: Journalists must evaluate the credibility of their sources by analyzing their motivations, history of providing information, and position or knowledge in the relevant field.

  • Digital Verification: For digital materials such as photos or videos, journalists use digital verification techniques. These can include tools for checking metadata, comparing with other known materials, or analyzing content to detect manipulation.

  • Contextualizing Information: Journalists strive to place information in a broader context to ensure it is understandable and not presented in a misleading way.

  • Caution with Anonymous Sources: While anonymous sources can be important, journalists approach them with great caution and strive to confirm information from additional, independent sources.

  • Transparency with Readers: In cases where certain aspects of the information cannot be fully verified, journalists inform their readers, highlighting elements of uncertainty.

  • Using Verification Tools: There are specialized tools and software that help in verifying information, especially in the context of social media and digital content.

  • Professional Ethics: Journalists adhere to professional ethics principles, which require accuracy, objectivity, and honesty in reporting.

Information verification in journalism is the subject of much academic research. Shesterkina, Lobodenko, Krasavina, and Marfitsyna17 emphasize the importance of teaching fact-checking in journalism education, noting the need to adapt curricula to contemporary challenges such as misinformation and fake news. Petrushkov18 discusses the evolution of convergent journalism and the growing importance of fact-checking, while Cuartielles, Ramon-Vegas, and Pont-Sorribes19 analyze the impact of AI-based tools, such as ChatGPT, on the information verification process. Additionally, Adami20 considers the impact of AI, including ChatGPT, on the journalism industry, and Arias-Jiménez et al.21 analyze the use of chatbots for news verification. Arvanitis, Sadeghi, and Brewster22 focus on the generation of misinformation by AI tools. Beckett23 examines the global impact of AI on journalism, and Bielik and Višňovský24 discuss the development of explanatory journalism in the digital era. Boczkowski25 and Boden26 analyze innovations in digital media and the broader implications of AI on journalism. Brennen, Howard, and Nielsen27 analyze British media in the context of artificial intelligence, Brewster, Arvanitis, and Sadeghi28 warn about ChatGPT as a source of misinformation, and Canavilhas29 studies the use of AI in automatic translation and content recommendation. Carlson30 discusses changes in the definition of journalistic work in the era of automation. Cavaliere31 focuses on fact-checking practices, while Cazalens et al.32 present a content management perspective based on fact-checking. Crawford33 considers the global consequences of AI, and Cybenko and Cybenko34 explore the relationship between AI and fake news. Diakopoulos35 looks at how algorithms are transforming the media, and Dörr36 analyzes the impact of algorithms on the media industry.

The development of AI and algorithms significantly affects the information verification process and the way journalists approach their work. These studies highlight the importance of adapting to new technologies while maintaining ethical and professional journalism standards. The use of AI in journalism brings both challenges and opportunities, and it is crucial to effectively utilize these tools to improve the quality and reliability of information. Technological trends indicate the need to implement language models into technological solutions, especially in the area of user communication.

The described studies highlight the complexity and diversity of journalists’ needs. A new platform should be designed to effectively support journalists in their diverse needs and professional challenges. From ethical and emotional issues to technological challenges and the impact of culture and politics on journalism, the platform should offer tools for effective information management from various sources, enabling journalists to create coherent and credible narratives. Introducing advanced analytical functions, such as content analysis, trend detection, or data mapping tools, can further enrich the journalistic process. In this way, a new media platform can become an indispensable tool for journalists, facilitating the delivery of reliable and insightful content, thereby contributing to the development of the media industry and promoting credible journalism. Finally, in the context of designing the system architecture, it is necessary to consider the possibility of integrating AI-based language models that will enable the validation of submitted content (e.g., verifying the use of vulgarities) and allow for the categorization of posted announcements.

This article presents a conceptual framework and system architecture corresponding to Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) 2–3. At this stage, the focus is on modeling and validating the logic of a citizen journalism ecosystem based on GNSS positioning and blockchain technology. Future work will address prototype development, pilot testing, and empirical validation in operational environments.

Although previous studies have examined the application of blockchain for content verification and the use of GNSS in geolocation-based data collection, to the best of our knowledge, no existing research has proposed an integrated system combining both technologies specifically for citizen journalism. This work introduces a conceptual framework that bridges this gap by enabling verifiable, location-aware, and tamper-proof news reporting using user-friendly mobile and decentralized tools.

Moreover, prior implementations often focus on either blockchain for data traceability or GNSS for location tracking in isolation. Our approach synthesizes both dimensions within a unified architecture tailored to the challenges of decentralized news production and distribution.

The goal of this article is to design the integration of GNSS satellite data with blockchain to increase the credibility of information. The GeoNewsChain system is presented, aimed at demonstrating the utility of integrating GNSS with blockchain for the purposes of the citizen journalism market and enhancing the credibility of information.

The original value of the article is the proposal of a new approach in the form of the GeoNewsChain system, aiming to increase the credibility of information both at the stage of acquisition and subsequent processing. The novelty of the article lies in showing that increasing the credibility of information is key to combating fake news and that the use of new technologies can mitigate the risks associated with the distribution of information about events. The article highlights the need to develop technological solutions that protect content creators, which is especially important in the context of the rapid development of various technologies that facilitate the generation of deep fakes.

The article proposes an innovative methodology based on the integration of GNSS with blockchain using an entirely new system structure. The authors assumed that the universality of the proposed methodology has significant potential to become an essential component of the information cycle in any information system, particularly in citizen journalism.

In today’s digital era, the spread of fake news and disinformation poses a serious challenge to the integrity of news media and audience trust. Traditional news services struggle to quickly verify the authenticity of content, while consumers are increasingly distrustful of the information they encounter online. This erosion of trust has far-reaching consequences, from influencing public opinion to affecting democratic processes. The publication proposes a solution to this critical problem by leveraging advanced technologies such as blockchain and the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Based on these technologies, a systemic solution for information verification and validation is proposed, integrating satellite data for precise geolocation and blockchain for immutable record-keeping. The proposed solution provides real-time content authentication. This innovative approach not only increases the credibility of news but also restores the trust of consumers and media partners.

The presented solution can be particularly useful for several main market segments: end users, media companies and newsrooms, and advertisers and sponsors. End users, seeking verified and reliable news, can avoid disinformation thanks to GeoNewsChain. Media companies and newsrooms will find tools in our system for quickly verifying the authenticity of news, helping them maintain a high level of credibility. Advertisers and sponsors will gain confidence that their advertisements are placed alongside verified and reliable content. By addressing the needs of these segments, GeoNewsChain creates a comprehensive ecosystem supporting the creation, verification, and dissemination of authentic information, contributing to a more informed and trustworthy media landscape.

Materials and methods

As part of the GeoNewsChain project, comprehensive research was conducted to understand the needs and expectations of platform users and assess the feasibility of integrating GNSS and blockchain technology in citizen journalism. This research included a variety of methods, such as workshops, conferences, online surveys, and in-depth interviews with journalists, which allowed for the collection of comprehensive and reliable data.

The first phase of the research involved three workshops with a total of 81 participants, including both ordinary citizens and experienced journalists. The purpose of these workshops was to present the GeoNewsChain concept and discuss the basic assumptions and goals of the project, as well as GNSS and blockchain technology in the context of citizen journalism. Workshop participants had the opportunity to exchange views on the use of technology in citizen journalism, which enabled the collection of qualitative data on their needs and expectations.

Another research component was participation in a conference dedicated to citizen journalism, where our presentation and participation in a debate attracted over 100 attendees. The presentation included a detailed discussion of GNSS and blockchain technology and their potential applications in citizen journalism. Participation in the conference allowed for a deeper dialogue with media practitioners and theorists, providing valuable information for further analysis.

We also conducted an online survey, which was completed by 160 people. The survey was designed to allow an in-depth exploration of various aspects related to the use and perception of the GeoNewsChain platform. It included closed-ended questions with a Likert scale, closed-ended questions without a Likert scale, and open-ended questions, allowing for the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. The survey questions covered topics such as respondent demographics, their experience with technology, platform functionality preferences, business models, monetization, and privacy concerns.

In-depth interviews were conducted with journalists working in print, radio, television, and YouTubers specializing in local topics. These interviews aimed to gain deeper insights into the specific needs and challenges faced by media operating in different sectors. The interviews were conducted according to a structured scenario, containing open-ended questions about the challenges of using technology in citizen journalism, needs and expectations regarding new technologies such as GNSS and blockchain, and preferences regarding platform functionality and technical support.

The data collected from workshops, surveys, and interviews were subjected to detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis. Quantitative analysis included the use of statistical methods such as chi-square tests and Pearson correlations to identify significant relationships between variables. Qualitative analysis involved categorizing and coding responses to open-ended questions, allowing for the identification of key themes and patterns in the collected data.

In the process of developing the GeoNewsChain system, various technical and engineering methods were employed to ensure its comprehensiveness and reliability. The system architecture was meticulously designed, considering key components such as user interfaces, APIs, authentication and application servers, databases, and blockchain integration. Each component was designed with security, scalability, and efficiency in mind. Techniques such as system modeling, requirements analysis, unit and integration testing, and prototype implementation were utilized. GNSS data was processed based on the NMEA standard, enabling precise geolocation and time synchronization, crucial for the system’s credibility. Additionally, the use of smart contracts on the blockchain allowed for the automation and securing of data verification processes. Integration with external services, such as payment systems and maps, was conducted using APIs, ensuring the smooth and secure operation of the system.

The study used methods that were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and ethical regulations for scientific research. All experimental protocols received the necessary approvals from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn. Participation in the study was fully voluntary. All participants in the study gave informed consent to participate in the study after being fully informed of its objectives, scope and potential consequences. The study participants were adults. Ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of information obtained from participants was a priority throughout the research process. These measures were taken to ensure that the study was conducted in an ethical manner and in accordance with the highest standards of scientific accountability.

The data collected through expert workshops and semi-structured interviews were analyzed qualitatively using thematic coding. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the focus on conceptual system design, no formal hypothesis testing or statistical significance analysis was conducted. Instead, the findings served to inform key user requirements and system features. This approach aligns with the early TRL stage of the project (TRL 2–3), where stakeholder input supports architecture development rather than quantitative validation.

Theory

This literature review presents research on the use of GNSS in the localization and tracking of information, as well as the role of blockchain technology in ensuring data security, reliability, and integrity. It also discusses the challenges and limitations associated with integrating these technologies in the context of journalism. The aim of this review is to present the current state of knowledge and identify research gaps and potential directions for further studies that could contribute to the development of the GeoNewsChain project.

The use of satellite data in journalism represents a significant area of contemporary research, integrating satellite technology with modern methods of information dissemination. Scholarly works, such as those by Schroeder37, explore the impact of mobile and satellite technologies on multimodal connectivity, highlighting their importance in rapid access to data and information. Liu, Wang, and Long38 analyze the use of satellite data in crisis management in China, demonstrating their potential in mapping and analyzing media responses to events.

Gillespie and Toft39 focus on the role of satellite imagery in data journalism, showing how new technologies are changing the way information is collected, processed, and presented. Crampton et al.40 examine the potential of the “geoweb” and big data in journalism, emphasizing the importance of geospatial data in reporting global events and monitoring environmental changes. In “Code/Space,” Kitchin and Dodge41 analyze the impact of software utilizing satellite data on daily life and journalism, highlighting the importance of digital technologies in shaping our perception of the world. Tulloch42 investigates the development of data-driven journalism, including the use of satellite data, emphasizing its potential to provide the public with more detailed and accurate information.

Sui and Goodchild43 analyze the convergence of geographic information systems (GIS) and social media, focusing on the possibilities of using satellite data in journalism. Li and Zhou44 and Elwood and Leszczynski45 provide insights into how satellite data can be used to map urban areas and analyze new spatial media, as well as their impact on knowledge policy. Wilson46 explores how data, including satellite data, are used by institutions such as the World Bank, highlighting their impact on journalism and society.

In the context of the GeoNewsChain project, the integration of satellite and GNSS data opens up new possibilities for digital journalism. With precise GNSS location data and detailed satellite images, journalists can provide firsthand information from well-defined locations. The integration of these tools with a blockchain platform further enhances the transparency and immutability of the collected information. In the era of combating fake news and disinformation, such a combination of GNSS technology, satellite data, and blockchain is a crucial step towards increasing the credibility of journalistic sources.

The use of blockchain to secure satellite and GNSS data ensures their transparency and immutability. Such an integrated approach allows for the creation of more comprehensive and reliable journalistic reports, especially in situations requiring rapid and precise response, such as natural disasters, armed conflicts, or significant political events. The ability to track and verify sources of information in real time, thanks to the combination of satellite data with blockchain technology, significantly enhances the quality of journalism, enabling the delivery of information to society that is not only current but also accurate and reliable.

The integration of GNSS and satellite data with modern media technologies in projects like GeoNewsChain opens new perspectives for investigative and research journalism. Journalists can use these technologies for in-depth analysis of global trends and events, providing high value-added content. The ability to process and analyze large datasets from satellites and GNSS, combined with the benefits of blockchain, allows journalists to create more accurate, detailed, and reliable reports.

In the extended analysis of the application of blockchain technology in journalism, key references are the studies by Hou47 and French et al.48. Hou focuses on various information platforms, highlighting the impact of blockchain on news production transparency and the implementation of cryptocurrency-based incentive mechanisms. French and colleagues discuss the importance of integrating artificial intelligence, blockchain, and 5G technology in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

In the context of combating disinformation, Sintes-Olivella et al.49 investigate the role of blockchain in countering misinformation in the media. Their work, along with studies by Brohi50, Min51, Ali et al.52, Bajac and Vojinović53, Khalaf and Abdulsahib54, Zhu et al.55, and Heo et al.56, provides a comprehensive overview of the applications and possibilities of blockchain in media and digital journalism.

Regarding decentralization and crowdsourcing in journalism, the work of Lima et al.57 demonstrates how decentralized application platforms (DApp) can revolutionize citizen journalism. Park et al.58 identify the principles of designing business models for blockchain-based media, focusing on benefits for creators, decentralized management, community-driven value creation, and revenue generation. Guidi and colleagues59 present innovative applications, such as HELIOS Citizen Journalism, which enable anonymous user participation and ensure content authenticity.

The discussion also includes the challenges and potential of blockchain in journalism, exemplified by the Civil platform. In summary, blockchain technology in journalism offers new opportunities in the context of decentralization, transparency, and innovation. Despite challenges, such as the need for an integrated usage model in the media, blockchain appears as a promising tool that can significantly contribute to the development of high-quality journalism. Collecting, verifying, and disseminating information using blockchain opens new perspectives for the future of media, raising standards of accountability, transparency, and trust. However, it requires further research and development to fully harness its potential in the evolving world of digital journalism.

Implementing blockchain technology in the GeoNewsChain system requires careful consideration of technical and legal aspects and adapting the system architecture to work with this technology. Blockchain in GeoNewsChain ensures data immutability and verifiability. Every reported event can be recorded as a transaction on the blockchain, guaranteeing that once entered, the information remains unchanged and reliable. Smart contracts can automate the verification processes of submissions, increasing the system’s efficiency and transparency.

Selecting the appropriate blockchain model for GeoNewsChain requires analyzing various options, such as public, private, consortium, and hybrid blockchains. A public blockchain offers high transparency and decentralization but lacks the control necessary to ensure data integrity. A private blockchain provides a high level of control and security but does not offer the required transparency.

The consortium blockchain model has been considered the most suitable for GeoNewsChain. It offers controlled decentralization, allowing a selected group of nodes, such as trusted media partners, to participate in the consensus process. Consortium blockchain increases system security, reducing the risk of malicious attacks while maintaining a high level of data protection. It is more scalable compared to public blockchains, which is crucial for handling the growing number of users and transactions on the platform.

The consortium model builds trust among media partners by involving them in the verification process, enhancing the platform’s credibility. The combination of transparency and security offered by consortium blockchain ensures users’ trust in verified content, which is key to user engagement and platform success. Cost-efficiency is also a significant factor, as consortium blockchains are more cost-effective compared to public blockchains, not requiring the same computational power for consensus mechanisms like proof of work60.

Implementing blockchain in the GeoNewsChain project involves several technical stages:

  • Analysis and Planning: Gathering and analyzing business, functional, and technical requirements.

  • System Architecture Design: Data structure design, smart contract development, and integration planning with external systems.

  • Blockchain Platform Selection: Analyzing different platforms for capabilities, security, and developer community support.

  • Prototype Development: Testing key functions and architecture to verify chosen solutions.

  • Full System Implementation: Coding, unit testing, integration testing, and acceptance testing.

  • Deployment and Integration: Data migration and system launch in a production environment, ensuring interoperability with existing external systems.

  • Monitoring and Optimization: Tracking system performance and making improvements based on monitoring data and user feedback.

  • Security Management: Implementing protective measures against external and internal threats and regular system updates.

This structured implementation enables GeoNewsChain to transition effectively from theoretical planning to practical execution, providing a robust and reliable platform for news verification based on blockchain technology.

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) plays a key role in the GeoNewsChain system, providing precise geolocation data and time synchronization, which are fundamental for event verification. GNSS, including systems like GPS, Galileo, GLONASS, and BeiDou, delivers accurate location and time information globally, enabling precise event location tagging and data synchronization from various sources61.

A crucial element of GNSS is the timing system, which ensures precise synchronization between satellites and ground receivers. GNSS timing systems, such as GPS Time or Galileo System Time (GST), are essential for accurately determining positions and synchronizing events. Precise timestamps are necessary for verifying the authenticity and sequence of submissions in the GeoNewsChain system, allowing for accurate tracking and recording of event information62. To facilitate data transmission, the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) communication standard is used. The NMEA 0183 standard specifies message formats containing navigation data, such as geographic coordinates, time, speed, and direction63,64. In the GeoNewsChain system, NMEA data is used to transmit location and time information from mobile devices to the application server, enabling precise real-time location tracking and data synchronization.

Through the integration of GNSS and the NMEA standard, the GeoNewsChain system can provide users with accurate and reliable data on the location and time of events. Precise time synchronization allows for effective verification of submission authenticity, which is crucial for ensuring data credibility and integrity in the system.

User requirements research

As part of the GeoNewsChain project, extensive research was conducted to understand the needs and expectations of potential platform users. This research included organizing workshops, participating in conferences, conducting an online survey, and in-depth interviews with journalists. The results of these activities formed the basis for further platform development.

The first stage of the research involved three workshops with a total of 81 participants, including both ordinary citizens and experienced journalists. The workshops consisted of two parts: a presentation of the GeoNewsChain concept and a discussion panel that allowed for the exchange of opinions and insights on the use of technology in citizen journalism. Additionally, we participated in an international conference dedicated to citizen journalism, where our presentation and participation in a debate attracted over 100 attendees. These events allowed for a deeper dialogue with media practitioners and theorists, which proved invaluable in the context of our analyses.

Concurrently with the meetings and conferences, we conducted an online survey, which was completed by 160 people. The survey provided valuable quantitative data on user preferences and expectations regarding the GeoNewsChain platform. It was designed to allow an in-depth exploration of various aspects related to the use and perception of the platform. The use of closed-ended questions, both with Likert scale and multiple-choice questions, allowed for the collection of quantitative data regarding the degree of agreement with various statements and more diverse but still structured responses. Open-ended questions allowed for nuanced qualitative insights into user expectations.

Demographic analysis showed that the majority of respondents were young people, mainly women, living in large cities. Most rated their knowledge of new technologies as average to good, but their awareness and practical use of blockchain technology remain limited. Respondents showed significant interest in information protection and transparency, as well as anonymity in using the application. Most considered data protection against alterations as important, and the verification of information credibility as the most desired platform feature.

Further survey analysis revealed that 87.7% of respondents emphasized the importance of universal access to the platform on various devices, and 63% valued the ability to personalize content. However, most did not have a firm opinion on the platform’s impact on personal and professional development, indicating a need for better communication of the benefits of using the platform. Opinions on the willingness to pay for a subscription were divided, with most accepting an ad-supported model. The motivation to participate in content creation through tokens was moderate, and expectations regarding the minimum amount for selling information were varied.

Respondents also expressed high interest in personalized notifications about local events, though trust in mainstream media was low. The integration of the platform with other services, such as maps or weather forecasts, was positively evaluated. The research results clearly show that young people have high expectations regarding data protection, content personalization, and integration with other services. At the same time, there is a need for education about blockchain technology and its benefits to build greater trust and acceptance of this technology among users. Community engagement and appropriate monetization mechanisms can significantly influence user activity and loyalty to the GeoNewsChain platform.

The summary of user requirements based on surveys and interviews with journalists is presented in Table 1. Respondents also show diverse expectations towards the media, indicating the need for further monitoring of their preferences and readiness to engage in modern information solutions.

Table 1 Justification of geonewschain user requirements.
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The detailed analysis and results of the interviews and survey are presented in Appendix1.

System architecture

GeoNewsChain (www.geonewschain.com) is an innovative information system designed for the collection, verification, and distribution of event data worldwide. Its unique architecture comprises several key components that together form a comprehensive and integrated solution tailored to the needs of both individual users and media professionals. The system includes user interfaces optimized for mobile and desktop devices, advanced APIs for efficient data exchange, an authentication server ensuring security and privacy, and an application server, which acts as the system’s core by processing business logic. A key element of GeoNewsChain is the integration with blockchain technology, which ensures the immutability and reliability of the collected data. The system also encompasses databases, external services, a notification system, administrative tools, data security solutions, and a communication module, collectively creating a versatile platform that provides reliable and up-to-date information about events worldwide.

The system components have been meticulously designed to ensure efficiency, security, and user-friendliness (Table 2; Fig. 1).

Table 2 System components with detailed descriptions and key elements.
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Each of these components plays a key role in the operation of the system, ensuring its efficiency, security and user-friendliness.

Fig. 1
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GeoNewsChain components.

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The system components are interconnected and exchange information/data in the following way: The User Interface (Web and Mobile) communicates with the API by sending requests and receiving responses. The API forwards requests from the user interface to the application server and retrieves data back, which is then sent back to the user interface. The application server communicates with the database to retrieve, save, and update user data, event data, and other information. The application server works with the blockchain to record or verify the immutability of certain data, and the database is updated based on information recorded on the blockchain. The application server also integrates with external services, such as payment systems or map services, to process transactions or acquire additional data. The notification system manages the sending of alerts and information to users, and administrative tools are used for managing the system, monitoring, and data analysis. All communications between the application server and other components are secured using data security mechanisms such as encryption and authentication. The communication module facilitates the exchange of data and information between the application server and other components, both internal and external. The authentication server manages user login, authentication, and sessions, communicating with the user interface, API, and application server65,66.

Each of these components plays a key role in the efficient functioning of the system, ensuring the necessary exchange of information and data between different elements of the architecture. In the system for collecting and selling event data worldwide, data flows between various system components in several key groups. Ensuring the integrity and security of this data at every stage is crucial for user trust and the system’s functioning (Table 3).

Table 3 Data flow between components in the system.
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In the system for collecting and selling event data, information flows between various system components in several key groups.

From user to system

Users log into the system via a mobile application or website. Login data is sent to the authentication server. After logging in, users can submit information about events (descriptions, multimedia, location data) through the user interface. This data is sent via the API to the application server. In the mobile application, data may be temporarily stored in a local database before synchronization with the central database.

Data processing and storage

The application server processes the submitted data (e.g., verification, categorization) and forwards it to the central database. Transactional and payment data are processed by external payment services and stored in the database. If blockchain technology is used, event-related data is recorded as transactions on the blockchain.

Data access by users and clients

Users can search and view events via the user interface. Data is retrieved from the database via the API. Clients, such as news agencies, can access data through a special API or user interface, retrieving necessary information from the database.

Data management and analysis

System administrators use administrative tools to monitor, manage content, and analyze data. These tools communicate with the database and application server. The analytics system collects and processes data related to usage, interactions, and transactions, generating reports and statistics.

Data security and protection

All data transmitted between the front-end and back-end is encrypted. The system regularly performs database backups. Security logs are collected and analyzed to detect and prevent unauthorized access.

Communication and notifications

The system sends notifications to users (e.g., event approval, new updates) via the notification server, which communicates with the database and user devices. It is important to apply best practices in data security, performance optimization, and scalability throughout the system to ensure a reliable and secure environment for users and clients.

Characteristics of block building, including interfaces and input/output data

In the complex architecture of the GeoNewsChain system, each component functions as a crucial building block, contributing to the overall effectiveness and robustness of the platform. The “Building Block Characteristics” section aims to present these fundamental components, offering a deeper understanding of their individual features and specific roles they play in the system (Fig. 2). This exploration is key to understanding how the unique characteristics and functions of each component combine to form a cohesive and comprehensive system. From user-oriented interfaces to complex backend processes, each building block is designed with precision and purpose, ensuring that the GeoNewsChain system remains at the forefront of technological innovation and user satisfaction.

Fig. 2
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Komponenty architektury systemu GeoNewsChain.

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GeoNewsChain uses GNSS data, which play a key role in determining the coordinates and geographical parameters associated with the satellite constellation (Block 1). Data such as geographical coordinates from navigation systems, DOP factor, and epoch information (Galileo System Time) are fundamental elements recorded in the blockchain system and are captured by mobile devices in Block 2. Users enter event and incident data using these devices, and each message added to the system with location enabled on the device receives a status confirming its place of addition. These devices send data to Block 5a, the application server, which is a crucial system component processing business logic and managing user and event data.

The end-user interface (Block 4) allows journalists to access stored messages, enabling them to search by topic, location, and status (trusted location/no verified location) and make purchases. The sales module in GeoNewsChain (Block 5b) is designed to facilitate seamless and secure transactions for the sale of verified informational content. The architecture of this module supports three main revenue streams: commissions on the sale of certified news, subscriptions for media companies, and advertisements on the platform. The digital marketplace, where verified informational content is offered for sale, displays content offers with prices, descriptions, and certificates of authenticity, allowing buyers to browse and search for content.

The transaction processing module manages the financial aspects of sales, handling payment processing, signing digital contracts, and updating blockchain records with new ownership data. Managing digital contracts facilitates the creation and management of legally binding agreements between content creators and buyers, which are recorded on the blockchain. The content delivery system ensures buyers have access to purchased content, securely delivering high-resolution content and associated metadata. The access control mechanism ensures that only authorized buyers can access purchased content, using digital rights management (DRM) to control and monitor content usage.

Subscription management handles subscriptions for media companies, offering access to premium features such as real-time notifications and detailed statistics, managing subscription plans, billing cycles, and access rights. Ad management enables the placement and management of advertisements on the platform, allowing advertisers to create campaigns, target specific user groups, and monitor ad performance.

The integration of these components ensures a smooth and secure workflow for the sale and purchase of verified informational content. The architecture supports the platform’s goal of providing reliable and trusted news while generating revenue through commissions, subscriptions, and advertisements.

In the GeoNewsChain project, satellite components such as GNSS systems play a key role in ensuring accuracy, reliability, and global reach for geolocation features. GNSS offers high positioning accuracy necessary for precisely locating event photos and descriptions on the map. Compared to alternatives such as cell signal triangulation or Wi-Fi location, GNSS provides better precision, especially in areas with less developed infrastructure. It provides global coverage, allowing GeoNewsChain users to publish and access data from anywhere on Earth, which is crucial for the timeliness of information. Alternatives may be limited by local infrastructure, which can be problematic in remote or sparsely populated regions. GNSS enables rapid position determination, which is key for the timeliness of information in GeoNewsChain, while alternatives may require more time to obtain an accurate location. Using GNSS does not require access to external infrastructure beyond the satellite signal, whereas alternatives like cell signal triangulation or Wi-Fi location depend on hotspot databases and entail additional costs and dependencies.

A case study of blockchain implementation at geonewschain

In this section, the implementation of the GeoNewsChain blockchain system through a decentralized application (dApp) will be discussed. The goal is to present the functionality of the key blockchain elements and demonstrate the feasibility of the solution. The dApp prototype serves as a practical demonstration of integrating various blockchain components to ensure a secure, decentralized news verification system. The processes related to data transmission, verification, and storage will be described, as well as the flow of information between the different parts of the system.

In the process of creating the prototype, key blockchain functions were implemented to demonstrate the feasibility of our solution. The functionalities include secure data transmission, verification, and storage. The flow of information from the moment a news report is submitted by the user to its recording and verification in the system is described. The results of this prototype highlight the feasibility of our approach, showing that the blockchain model meets our expectations for the security of GeoNewsChain. The following diagram visually illustrates these processes, explaining the communication flow between the different components of the system (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Architektura systemu prototypu dApp GNC.

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MetaMask acts as a browser extension that enables direct interaction with the Ethereum blockchain. It manages user authentication, handles wallet operations, and facilitates transaction signing in the browser, simplifying user interactions by abstracting the complex blockchain connections. The web browser renders the user interface using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, with Web3.js playing a crucial role in connecting these front-end elements to the Ethereum blockchain. This setup allows the website to dynamically interact with blockchain data, enabling real-time updates and interactive functionalities directly in the browser.

Data entered by users, such as messages with titles, descriptions, and images, is initially collected on the website and then stored in a database. This ensures the secure storage of user-generated content and its availability for future interactions and verification in the dApp. Moralis serves as the backend infrastructure layer for blockchain applications, providing developers with access to managed RPC nodes to interact with the Ethereum blockchain. This allows for the deployment and interaction with smart contracts, processing of blockchain data, and integration of blockchain functionalities with traditional applications without the need to maintain their own blockchain nodes.

At the prototype stage of the dApp, messages stored in the database to be recorded on the blockchain are processed by Moralis. Moralis acts as an intermediary, fetching messages from the database and interacting with their smart contract functionalities. From the Moralis interface, messages are sent to the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). Moralis effectively connects with various Ethereum networks, such as the Sepolia testnet or the Ethereum Mainnet, depending on the deployment stage or target environment. This connection allows the execution of smart contracts managing messages on the blockchain, where they are processed, verified, and ultimately stored in a decentralized and secure manner on the specified network.

After executing smart contracts on the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) via Moralis, the resulting data, such as transaction status or data of minted NFTs (messages), is sent back to the website/dApp. This connection enables real-time updates in the dApp user interface, allowing users to instantly confirm their transactions on the blockchain and access their messages. The ERC1155 token standard is used in our dApp to mint messages as unique tokens on the blockchain. These metadata include general information about the message, such as title and description, and also contain geolocation data. Embedding this geolocation information directly into the token attributes ensures the authenticity and verifiability of the message content, making them immutable on the blockchain. The smart contract manages the creation, transfer, and access to these tokens.

The homepage of our dApp prototype features an interface requesting access through the MetaMask plugin. This step is crucial as it initiates the authentication process, using MetaMask to securely manage and verify user identities. MetaMask, a popular Ethereum wallet and gateway to blockchain applications, stores user credentials and facilitates secure interactions with the blockchain. This integration not only simplifies the user experience but also enhances security by relying on an established and trusted wallet technology for all transactions and interactions in the dApp (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Home page screenshot showing Metamask user authentication. The base map used in this figure was generated using data from OpenStreetMap (© OpenStreetMap contributors), accessed via https://www.openstreetmap.org, and visualized using QGIS software (version 3.28.3, https://qgis.org).

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Upon successful authentication, the user gains access to a range of functionalities in our decentralized application. A key feature is displaying a list of messages published by the user. A green icon next to the message indicates successful verification, meaning the geolocation data of the message has been recorded on the blockchain and matches the reported location, confirming its authenticity (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Screenshot of published messages with some verified messages.

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The implementation of blockchain in GeoNewsChain through a decentralized application (dApp) has demonstrated significant effectiveness in ensuring the security, transparency, and verifiability of user-generated messages. The system, leveraging technologies such as MetaMask, Moralis, and ERC1155 token standards, provides a solid foundation for future solutions in citizen journalism. Despite technological challenges, preliminary prototype work confirms the feasibility and potential of this solution.

The results of the research conducted as part of the GeoNewsChain project clearly indicate the effectiveness of integrating GNSS and blockchain technologies in the verification and validation process of information in citizen journalism. The analysis of the reliability of GNSS positioning data, such as GNSS time, latitude and longitude, number of satellites, DOP factor, and raw data from GNSS chipsets, forms the basis for determining the status of an announcement in the GeoNewsChain system. An example of NMEA data used for this analysis is: 210,230, 52°31′ 27″ N, 13° 24′ 37″ E, 17, 1.04, 20238726.401, 106355258.03117. A user who notices an interesting event and wants to document it uses a smartphone, which allows the validation of information by collecting GNSS data, which is then analyzed to confirm its authenticity.

The verification process assumes various levels of establishing the reliability of information, including methods for verifying the authenticity of data related to the location of an Android mobile device. First, comparing the position determined by GNSS with Wi-Fi/mobile positioning allows verifying whether the position determined by GNSS matches the location data obtained through Wi-Fi or cellular networks. Second, checking the Android location flag can indicate whether the mobile device is indeed using GNSS data, which helps exclude tampering. Third, comparing the time determined using GNSS and the Android system, i.e., synchronizing the time between GNSS data and the Android operating system, is crucial for confirming the authenticity of the data. Fourth, observing the values of Automatic Gain Control (AGC) and C/No (signal-to-noise ratio) allows assessing the quality of the GNSS signal and excluding false data.

Based on these methods, a blockchain is created, which constitutes the first level of information verification, ensuring that the data was indeed acquired and not generated. In the case of generated data, there is a need to create additional satellite data, which can also be verified. The second level of using blockchain is to protect creators from the modification of their messages and safeguard their rights. Blockchain ensures that once recorded, the information is immutable, protecting the authenticity and integrity of the content. This gives journalists confidence that their work will not be tampered with or stolen, which is crucial for maintaining credibility and user trust.

Discussion

The results of the research conducted on the GeoNewsChain project reveal a number of critical aspects that are essential for the successful implementation of GNSS and blockchain technologies in citizen journalism. The analysis of these results indicates the need to consider both technical risks and mitigation actions for further development and improvement of the system.

One of the main challenges is the security of user data and event-related content. The risk of hacking attacks and data breaches can lead to severe consequences, including data loss, privacy violations, and damage to the platform’s reputation. To counteract this, the system must implement advanced encryption mechanisms, regular security audits, and data protection protocols. Additionally, regular employee training in security practices is necessary to minimize these risks.

Another significant aspect is the scalability and performance of the system. The increase in the number of users and system load can lead to performance issues such as delays or downtimes, negatively affecting user experience. Therefore, the system should be designed with scalability in mind from the outset, utilizing load balancing, efficient database management, and cloud services. This approach will allow for effective management of growing traffic and data volume.

Verification and management of user-generated content pose another challenge. The risk of spreading false information or content that infringes copyright requires robust moderation tools and verification processes. Utilizing machine learning algorithms for preliminary content filtering and employing a team to review content are crucial for maintaining the quality and credibility of information on the platform.

Integration with external services, such as payment systems or map services, carries risks related to incompatibility, API changes, and potential failures. A flexible system architecture that allows easy integration with various APIs and contingency plans is essential to ensure continuous operation.

Compliance with legal regulations, such as data protection laws (e.g., GDPR) and copyright law, must be carefully considered. Non-compliance with these regulations can lead to severe legal consequences. Regular updates to compliance protocols and conducting audits are key to ensuring ongoing adherence to regulations.

Maintenance, updates, and system monitoring are necessary to ensure its security and currency. A lack of adequate resources and strategies in this area can lead to neglect and vulnerability to threats. Establishing routine system updates and hiring an IT support team to handle ongoing updates and troubleshoot issues is crucial.

Blockchain technology, despite its advantages, carries risks related to technological instability, scalability difficulties, and privacy issues. Choosing a stable and scalable blockchain platform, continuously monitoring performance, and keeping up with the latest developments in this field are essential for system reliability.

Availability and failure resistance are critical for the continuity of system operation. Implementing redundancy systems, creating data backups, and developing a comprehensive disaster recovery plan are necessary to minimize downtime.

The user interface is also a key element of the system’s success. Creating an intuitive and accessible interface that works smoothly on various devices requires investment in UI and UX design and regular user testing to gather feedback and improve the interface.

One limitation of this study is the lack of statistical significance testing. This is justified by the project’s current status as a conceptual exploration. Future studies, involving broader participant samples and pilot system usage, will apply formal statistical methods to validate user behavior and interaction patterns.

Economic risks, such as low market adoption, high development costs, market fluctuations, and legal and regulatory issues, must also be considered. Low market adoption can affect the project’s profitability, necessitating market research and pilot testing, as well as strong marketing strategies. High development costs require careful budget planning, seeking investors or grants, and effective resource management. Market fluctuations can affect operational costs and revenues, requiring a flexible business model and regular market trend analysis.

Ultimately, to ensure the success of the proposed GNSS and blockchain integration, a holistic approach to risk management is necessary, considering technical, economic, and social aspects. This requires continuous monitoring and adjustment of strategies in response to changing conditions and challenges.

As this research corresponds to TRL 2–3, the focus has been placed on the conceptual and architectural design of the system. The absence of performance benchmarks reflects the early-stage status of development. Empirical testing, including performance evaluation and blockchain transaction analysis, is planned for future iterations of the project as it advances toward TRL 5–6.

Conclusions

The research conducted as part of the GeoNewsChain project confirmed that the integration of GNSS and blockchain technologies in citizen journalism significantly increases the credibility and authenticity of collected data. The analysis of GNSS data, such as GNSS time, geographical coordinates, number of satellites, DOP factor, and raw data from GNSS chipsets, proved crucial for the effective verification of information. Verification methods, which included comparing GNSS position with mobile positioning, checking the Android location flag, and comparing GNSS time with the Android system, ensured a high level of data authenticity.

The introduction of smart contracts on the blockchain enabled the automation of verification processes, further increasing the transparency and security of the system. Blockchain, as a technology, effectively protected copyright and content integrity, preventing manipulation and modification of submitted information. As a result, content creators could be confident that their work remained intact, and users could be assured that they were using reliable and credible sources of information.

The research also showed that users appreciate the transparency and authenticity offered by the GeoNewsChain system, leading to greater trust in the platform. The comprehensive system architecture, including user interfaces, advanced APIs, authentication and application servers, databases, and integration with external services, ensured versatility and reliability of operation.

In summary, the GeoNewsChain project demonstrated that the use of advanced GNSS and blockchain technologies in citizen journalism not only improves the credibility and authenticity of information but also increases user trust and protects the rights of content creators. The research results indicate a great potential for further development and implementation of such solutions in other information systems, which can significantly impact the quality and reliability of media worldwide.