Introduction

Plants are cosmopolitan living groups that can exist in a wide geography by adapting to different climate and environmental conditions1. Throughout human history, plants have been used in many areas such as food supply, heating, shelter construction, equipment production and combating health problems2. They are an important resource for human health thanks to the biomolecules and minerals they contain. The role of plants in combating diseases is among the oldest medical methods3. It is known that they can be effective in the prevention or treatment of many diseases thanks to their different biological effects4. Scientific studies have revealed that plants exhibit various biological activities such as anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, hepatoprotective and DNA protective5,6,7,8,9,10,11. In this context, examining the biological effects of plants can provide an important way to combat many known or yet undiscovered diseases. In this study, the biological activities of the Visnaga daucoides (Desf.) Celak. (Apiaceae) species were investigated.

Visnaga daucoides (Desf.) Celak. is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Apiaceae family. This species, which can grow up to 80 cm in length, has leaves that can reach 20 cm, usually oval or triangular in shape, and its flowers are umbrella-shaped. It is known by different local names such as “toothpick plant”, “bisnaga” or “khella”. It is used in traditional medicine especially to help pass kidney stones, and it is also reported to be used in the treatment of chest pain and angina pectoris. Its distribution area covers primarily the Mediterranean basin, as well as Iraq, Türkiye, North Africa and the Middle East. The plant contains various secondary metabolites such as khellin, visnagin, flavonoids, phenolic acids and coumarin derivatives. Thanks to these components, it exhibits antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticholinergic effects. The interaction between these biological activities plays an important role in the emergence of anticancer and neuroprotective effects, especially in connection with antioxidant capacity12,13. In this study, the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiproliferative and anticholinesterase activities of V. daucoides and its total phenolic and flavonoid contents and phenolic compounds were investigated.

Materials and methods

Plant samples were obtained from Duhok, Iraq and Gaziantep, Türkiye. The identification of the plants was made by Dr. Mustafa Sevindik. All permissions required for the collection of the plants were obtained from the relevant institutions. Herbarium samples of the plant samples are kept in Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Department of Biology (Herbarium number: Iraq sample: MS-1511, Türkiye sample: MS-1512). The aerial parts (stems and leaves) of V. daucoides were used in the study. Collected samples were dried in a dry area in the laboratory without being exposed to direct sunlight. 30 g of dried plants were weighed and prepared for the process. Then, the extraction process was carried out with 250 mL of ethanol using a Soxhlet apparatus for approximately 6 h at 50 °C. The obtained extracts were processed using a Rotary Evaporator to remove their solvents and thus crude extracts were obtained. Ethanol extracts of V. daucoides samples from Iraq and Türkiye were obtained using Soxhlet extraction. The crude extracts were dark in color, with an oily and dense consistency. These extracts were stored at + 4 °C and used directly in the antioxidant, antiproliferative, anticholinesterase, and antimicrobial assays.

Antioxidant tests

The antioxidant capacities of the plant extracts used in the study were analyzed with the help of Rel Assay kits (Mega Tıp/Gaziantep-Türkiye). Total antioxidant capacity (TAS) and total oxidant capacity (TOS) values were determined using the relevant kits provided by Rel Assay. In the application processes of the kits, a method in accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer was followed. Trolox was used for calibration in the TAS analysis and the results were expressed in mmol/L. Hydrogen peroxide was used as a calibrator in the TOS analysis and the measurements were recorded in µmol/L14,15. OSI (AU: Arbitrary unit) was determined by dividing the total oxidant capacity by the total antioxidant capacity, equating the units and calculating the percentage value16.

Anticholinesterase tests

The inhibitory activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzymes were analyzed by the Ellman method17. Galantamine was used as a reference substance. Stock solutions ranging from 200-3.125 µg/mL were prepared from plant extracts and the dilution method was applied. 130 µL of 0.1 M pH = 8 phosphate buffer, 10 µL of stock solution and 20 µL of enzyme (AChE or BChE enzyme solution) were added to the microplate wells, respectively. The mixtures were incubated at 25 °C in the dark for 10 minutes. Then, 20 µL of DTNB (5.5”-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid)) solution and 20 µL of substrate (acetylcholine iodide or butyrylcholine iodide) were added to each well and measurements were performed at 412 nm wavelength. Experiments were repeated three times for each sample and percent inhibition values were calculated as IC50 in µg/mL.

Antimicrobial tests

The antimicrobial activity of ethanol and methanol extracts of the plant was investigated by agar dilution method. The extracts were tested against Candida albicans ATCC 10,231, C. krusei ATCC 34,135, C. glabrata ATCC 90,030, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29,213, S. aureus MRSA ATCC 43,300, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29,212, Escherichia coli ATCC 25,922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27,853 and Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 19,606. The lowest extract concentration that stops the growth of microorganisms was defined as the MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) value. Bacteria were cultured in Mueller Hinton Broth medium, while fungi were grown in RPMI 1640 Broth medium18.

Total phenolic and flavonoid tests

Stock solutions of plant extracts with a concentration of 1 mg/mL were prepared using distilled water. 250 µL of the prepared stock solution was taken and mixed with 1 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (1:9, v/v). Then, 0.75 mL of 1% Na2CO3 was added to the mixture and kept at room temperature for 2 h. After the process, the absorbance of the samples was measured at a wavelength of 760 nm and the total phenolic content was calculated as mg/g based on the gallic acid standard curve19.

The total flavonoid amount in the ethanol and methanol extracts of the plant was analyzed by the aluminum chloride method19. For this purpose, 0.1 mL of 10% Al(NO3)3, 0.1 mL of 1 M NH4CH3COO, 4.3 mL of methanol, 0.5 mL of quercetin solution and 0.5 mL of plant extract were combined. The mixture was incubated for 40 min and then absorbance measurement was made at 415 nm. The amount of flavonoids was expressed as mg/g.

Antiproliferative test

The antiproliferative effect of plant extracts was evaluated by MTT (Cell Viability Test) method. A549 lung cancer cell line was used in the study. When the cells reached 70–80% density, dissociation was performed with 3.0 mL Trypsin-EDTA solution (Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA). The cells were incubated for 24 h after the procedure. Stock solutions of plant extracts at concentrations of 25, 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL were prepared and applied to the cells. After the application, the cells were incubated again for 24 h. After this process, the supernatants were removed and the growth medium was replaced with 1 mg/mL MTT solution. The cells were incubated at 37 °C until the formation of purple precipitate was observed. Then, the precipitate was dissolved with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA). Results were measured with an Epoch spectrophotometer (BioTek Instruments, Winooska, VT) at a wavelength of 570 nm20.

Phenolic analysis

The analysis of phenolic compounds in Visnaga daucoides extract was performed using an LC-MS/MS system equipped with a reversed-phase C18 Intersil ODS-4 analytical column (3.0 × 100 mm, 2 μm particle size), maintained at 40 °C. The mobile phases consisted of:

  • Phase A: ultrapure water containing 0.1% formic acid.

  • Phase B: methanol containing 0.1% formic acid.

The flow rate was set at 0.3 mL/min, and the injection volume was 2 µL. The elution was performed using a linear gradient program optimized for phenolic separation. Standard phenolic compounds including gallic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, resveratrol, salicylic acid, and others were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA) with ≥ 98% purity.

Mass spectrometry detection was performed using electrospray ionization (ESI) in negative ion mode, and quantitative analysis was conducted in Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) mode. Identification of phenolic compounds was based on the comparison of retention times and mass spectra with those of authentic standards.

Calibration curves were constructed using five different concentrations of each standard and showed good linearity with correlation coefficients (R²) > 0.99. The method was validated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, and repeatability, as reported in similar LC-MS/MS protocols in the literature21.

Results and discussions

Phenolic compounds

Plants synthesize many biologically active compounds in their bodies, creating a defense mechanism for themselves and becoming an important source in the fight against diseases thanks to these features22. In this study, the phenolic contents of samples of the V. daucoides plant collected from Iraq and Türkiye were examined in detail. The presence and amounts of phenolic compounds are among the important indicators that can shed light on the potential biological activities of the plant. The findings obtained as a result of the analyses showed that the plant offers a rich phenolic profile. These data are presented in detail in Table 1 and provide important information regarding the possible uses of the plant in the field of health.

Table 1 Phenolic contents of Visnaga daucoides (mg/kg).
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In this study, it was determined that the V. daucoides plant contains compounds such as acetohydroxamic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, kaempferol, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, resveratrol, myricetin, caffeic acid, quercetin and salicylic acid. However, while resveratrol and salicylic acid components were not found in the samples taken from Iraq, these compounds were found in the samples collected from Türkiye. In the literature, it has been reported that V. daucoides contains coumarin, apigenin, quercetin, rutin, caffeic acid, kaempferol, visnagin and ferulic acid compounds23. In this study, the presence of compounds such as acetohydroxamic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, resveratrol, myricetin and salicylic acid in addition to those in the literature was also confirmed. In addition, it has been stated that acetohydroxamic acid is known for its antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties24. 4-hydroxybenzoic acid has been reported to have antimicrobial, antioxidant, neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects25,26. There are studies on the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, analgesic and antiallergic properties of kaempferol27. Gallic acid has antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and antiviral effects in the literature28. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective properties of protocatechuic acid have also been recorded29. Resveratrol is known for its antidiabetic, antioxidant and anticancer effects30. Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, cardio- and cerebrovascular protection, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of myricetin have been emphasized in the literature31. Caffeic acid has been shown to have antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial properties32,33. Antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and hepatoprotective effects of quercetin have been found34. The anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of salicylic acid are also confirmed by the literature35,36. In conclusion, the findings of this study indicate that environmental factors contribute significantly to the variation in the chemical composition of V. daucoides collected from different geographical regions. The observed biological activities are closely associated with the presence of specific bioactive compounds, underscoring their potential health benefits. However, the limited number of compounds identified through LC-MS/MS analysis may not fully capture the plant’s complex phytochemical profile. Some of the variability in bioactivity between regional samples may be attributed to undetected or low-abundance compounds that fall below the detection limits of the method. Therefore, future studies employing broader metabolomic approaches are warranted to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the chemical diversity and biological potential of V. daucoides.

Antiproliferative activity

In recent years, cancer mortality and morbidity have become a major health problem worldwide37. In addition to drugs used in cancer treatment, natural products and herbal treatments are increasingly preferred. Plants have many different biological activities thanks to the biologically active compounds they contain, and these properties make them a valuable alternative source in cancer treatment. Research on the anticancer effects of plants is especially important in the integration of traditional medicine with modern medicine38. In our study, the effects of V. daucoides plant samples collected from Iraq and Türkiye on the A549 cancer cell line were examined. The findings are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Antiproliferative activity of Visnaga daucoides.

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In this study, it was determined that the samples of V. daucoides plant collected from Iraq showed stronger antiproliferative activity than the samples collected from Türkiye. In previous studies, ethanol extracts obtained from the aerial parts of V. daucoides have been reported to exhibit cytotoxic effects against various cancer cell lines, including Caco-2 (colon), MCF-7 (breast), and HepG-2 (hepatocellular) cells39. In another study, visnagin, a major bioactive compound isolated from V. daucoides, was shown to exert antiproliferative effects against the HT-144 (human malignant melanoma) cell line40. Differently from these studies, we evaluated the antiproliferative activity of V. daucoides plant on A549 (lung cancer) cell line using ethanol extract and found that it was effective. The findings of this study confirm the potential anticancer effects of V. daucoides on A549 lung cancer cells. The results demonstrate that biologically active compounds in the ethanol extract of V. daucoides inhibited cancer cell proliferation, suggesting its potential as a natural anticancer agent. The study also reveals that the biological activities of V. daucoides vary depending on geographical origin. In particular, samples collected from Iraq exhibited higher antiproliferative activity than those from Türkiye, indicating that environmental conditions such as climate, soil structure, sunlight exposure, and other ecological factors influence the plant’s compound profile and resulting bioactivity. These findings highlight the importance of regional diversity when evaluating medicinal plants for pharmaceutical applications. Moreover, the antioxidant, antiproliferative, and anti-inflammatory potential of phenolic compounds found in V. daucoides supports its further investigation in the development of plant-based therapeutic agents.

Total antioxidant and oxidant status

In recent years, plants have attracted the attention of researchers due to their high antioxidant properties. Free radicals are oxidant compounds that occur during the metabolic processes of organisms41. While low levels of these compounds can play a role in some biological functions, when their levels increase, they can cause cellular damage. Increased oxidant levels enable the antioxidant defense system in the body to be activated, and thus the damaging effects of oxidants are controlled42. However, very high levels of oxidant compounds can cause the defense system to become inadequate and cause oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can trigger serious health problems such as cancer, heart disease, Parkinson’s, and Alzheimer’s disease43. In this context, supplemented antioxidants play an important role in reducing the harmful effects of oxidative stress. In this study, the antioxidant potential of V. daucoides was examined and the findings are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 TAS, TOS, OSI, TPC, TFC values of Visnaga daucoides.
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This study has revealed the TAS, TOS and OSI values of V. daucoides for the first time in the literature. In various studies, different antioxidant potentials of V. daucoides have been reported with different methods44,45,46,47. However, TAS, TOS and OSI values of different plant species are available in the literature. For example, TAS values of plants such as Mentha longifolia subsp. longifolia, Helianthemum salicifolium, Dittrichia graveolens, Ferulago platycarpa, Alcea kurdica and Rumex scutatus were reported as 3.628, 9.490, 6.93, 5.688, 3.298 and 8.656 mmol/L, respectively. The TOS values of these plants were reported as 4.046, 14.839, 12.53, 15.552, 8.312 and 4.951 µmol/L. The OSI values were reported as 0.112, 0.157, 0.18, 0.273, 0.252 and 0.05748–53. In our study, the TAS values of V. daucoides samples collected from both Iraq and Türkiye were found to be higher than M. longifolia subsp. longifolia, D. graveolens, F. platycarpa and A. kurdica, but lower than H. salicifolium and R. scutatus. These findings indicate the high antioxidant potential of V. daucoides. The TOS value is an indicator of the oxidant compounds found in plants. In our study, the TOS value of V. daucoides samples collected from Iraq was determined to be higher than M. longifolia subsp. longifolia, A. kurdica and R. scutatus, and lower than H. salicifolium, D. graveolens and F. platycarpa. In Turkish samples, the TOS value of V. daucoides was found to be higher than M. longifolia subsp. longifolia, D. graveolens, A. kurdica and R. scutatus, but lower than H. salicifolium and F. platycarpa. These results show that the oxidant compound production capacity of V. daucoides may vary depending on the geographical region where the plant was collected. The OSI value is a parameter that shows how much oxidant compounds are suppressed compared to antioxidant compounds. In our study, the OSI value of V. daucoides samples collected from Iraq was found to be higher than M. longifolia subsp. longifolia and R. scutatus, but lower than H. salicifolium, D. graveolens, F. platycarpa and A. kurdica. In Turkish samples, the OSI value of V. daucoides was found to be lower than F. platycarpa and A. kurdica, but higher than M. longifolia subsp. longifolia, H. salicifolium, D. graveolens and R. scutatus. These findings demonstrate that Visnaga daucoides possesses significant potential in counteracting oxidative stress, and that this potential may be influenced by the environmental conditions in which the plant grows. Variations in antioxidant and oxidant parameters among samples collected from different geographical regions suggest that climatic and soil differences shape the plant’s metabolic responses to biotic and abiotic stressors. In particular, the synthesis of antioxidant compounds may be enhanced or suppressed depending on these local environmental pressures. Therefore, the observed biochemical differences between samples can be interpreted as adaptive responses, underscoring the need to consider ecological adaptation processes when evaluating such plants as sources of natural antioxidants in biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications.

Anticholinesterase activity

Cholinesterase inhibitors are known as compounds that prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and butyrylcholine54. These compounds play an important role in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s is the most common age-related neurological disease and its frequency is increasing with the increase in the elderly population worldwide55. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 80 million cases of dementia are expected by 2040. Although the exact pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease is unknown, inhibition of cholinesterase enzymes is thought to be an important factor in the progression of the disease56. In this context, the effects of V. daucoides on cholinesterase inhibition were investigated in our study and the IC50 values of its extracts are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 IC₅₀ values (µg/mL) of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) Inhibition by Visnaga daucoides extracts.
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In previous studies, the IC50 value of anti-AChE (acetylcholinesterase) activity of hydroalcoholic extracts of Visnaga daucoides (formerly Ammi visnaga) was reported to be 2.126 mg/mL57. In this study, anti-AChE and anti-BChE (butyrylcholinesterase) inhibitory potentials of ethanol extracts of V. daucoides collected from different geographical regions were investigated. As a result, it was observed that samples obtained from Iraq had higher anti-cholinesterase activity compared to samples collected from Türkiye. However, both samples had lower inhibitory potential compared to galantamine used as a standard. Determining the role of enzymes in pathological processes is of critical importance in the development of treatment strategies. Cholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, glaucoma and Myasthenia Gravis by strengthening central and peripheral cholinergic functions58. In this context, both V. daucoides samples used in our study demonstrated inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, indicating their potential as a natural source for managing neurological disorders. Cholinesterase inhibition is a key therapeutic strategy in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, where symptomatic relief is achieved by enhancing cholinergic transmission59,60. The growing interest in plant-derived cholinesterase inhibitors as alternatives or adjuncts to synthetic drugs provides a promising framework for developing supportive treatments. Accordingly, the cholinesterase inhibitory potential of V. daucoides highlights the need for further in-depth studies to explore its pharmacological applications.

Antimicrobial activity

Today, there are significant difficulties in combating diseases caused by microorganisms. The increase in resistant microorganisms gradually reduces the effectiveness of existing antimicrobial drugs and this limits the number of treatable diseases61. In particular, unconscious use of antibiotics accelerates the spread of resistant bacteria, weakening our ability to combat diseases. For this reason, the development of new antimicrobial treatment options has become one of the main focuses of research62. In our study, the effectiveness of V. daucoides on various standard bacterial and fungal strains was examined. The findings are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 MIC values of different extracts of Visnaga daucoides.
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In the literature, it has been reported that the essential oils of V. daucoides exhibited antimicrobial activity at different concentrations on a number of bacterial and fungal strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp., Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Geotrichum sp., Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia solani, Phoma sp63. In this study, the effects of V. daucoides samples collected from Iraq and Türkiye were evaluated on standard bacterial and fungal strains using ethanol extracts. According to the findings, it was observed that the samples collected from Iraq exhibited higher antimicrobial activity than the samples collected from Türkiye. Both Iraqi and Turkish samples were determined to be effective in the concentration range of 25–200 µg/mL. In Iraqi samples, activity was observed against P. aeruginosa at 25 µg/mL, against S. aureus, S. aureus MRSA and A. baumannii at 50 µg/mL, and against E. faecalis, E. coli, C. glabrata, C. albicans, and C. krusei at 100 µg/mL. In Turkish samples, activity was observed against S. aureus, S. aureus MRSA, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and A. baumannii at 100 µg/mL, and against E. faecalis, C. glabrata, C. albicans, and C. krusei at 200 µg/mL. These results suggest that microbial stress factors in the collection regions may shape the antimicrobial potential of Visnaga daucoides, and that geographical conditions can influence its chemical composition and bioactivity. The synthesis and concentration of phytochemicals in the plant may be modulated by its interaction with biotic and abiotic stressors, resulting in variations in antimicrobial activity. This highlights the importance of environmental factors in determining the pharmacological value of medicinal plants64. Exploring the biological properties of V. daucoides from different geographical origins may offer valuable insights for the identification of novel antimicrobial compounds, particularly those effective against resistant microorganisms.

Total phenolic and flavonoid contents

Plants attract attention with their ability to produce various biologically active compounds, and these compounds contribute to various biological activities of plants. The most important of these compounds are phenolic compounds and flavonoids65. While phenolic compounds play an important role in the defense mechanisms of plants, flavonoids are especially known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties66. In our study, total phenolic and flavonoid contents of V. daucoides were evaluated on samples collected from different geographies. According to the findings, total phenolic contents of samples collected from Iraq were found to be higher than samples collected from Türkiye. This suggests that there may be changes in the synthesis of phenolic compounds depending on the different environmental conditions and biotic stress factors encountered by the plant. On the other hand, it was observed that the total flavonoid contents of samples collected from Türkiye were higher than those collected from Iraq. This indicates that the production of flavonoid compounds may differ due to regional differences in the plant. In the literature, studies on the biochemical contents of V. daucoides samples obtained from different geographies reveal that this plant can produce different compounds under different conditions. For example, in previous studies, the total phenolic content of V. daucoides collected from Morocco was reported as 76.75 mg/g, while the flavonoid content was determined as 11.75 mg/g67. In our study, it was determined that V. daucoides samples from Iraq were higher in terms of phenolic content than samples obtained from Morocco. This variation suggests that climatic and environmental conditions may influence the biosynthesis and accumulation of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in V. daucoides. The high levels of these compounds observed in the samples support the plant’s potential for enhanced biological activity. Overall, the findings indicate that the chemical profile and concentration of bioactive constituents in V. daucoides are influenced by geographical origin, highlighting the importance of regional factors in evaluating its pharmacological properties and potential applications.

Conclusion

This study evaluated the phenolic profile and biological activities of Visnaga daucoides collected from Iraq and Türkiye, revealing notable geographic variation. The plant exhibited a rich array of bioactive compounds, including acetohydroxamic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, gallic acid, and resveratrol, which are known for their therapeutic relevance. Samples from Iraq showed higher concentrations of certain phenolics, suggesting that environmental factors such as climate, soil composition, and altitude may influence the plant’s chemical makeup. V. daucoides demonstrated strong antioxidant capacity and antiproliferative activity, particularly against A549 lung cancer cells, indicating its potential as a natural anticancer and antioxidant agent. Moreover, its moderate anticholinesterase activity supports its possible role in neuroprotection, especially in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. Both Iraqi and Turkish samples inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), although their effects were less potent than galantamine. These findings underscore the importance of ecological context in shaping the pharmacological properties of medicinal plants. Future studies should further investigate the mechanisms of action and evaluate the plant’s efficacy and safety through in vivo and clinical research, aiming to unlock its full pharmaceutical potential.