Abstract
Invasions of water hyacinth critically threaten aquatic ecosystems and human livelihoods. The study investigates the impact of water hyacinth proliferation on ecological and socio-economic conditions and management strategies in Kuttanad region, India. A mixed-methods approach, including surveys, Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) mapping, and stakeholder interviews, was employed to investigate the impact on the local communities. Results show that water hyacinths grow in many different backwaters, lakes, and canals and cause significant environmental damage, financial losses, and health issues for local communities. The Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) of 3.56 (on a scale of 1–5) shows that the Pulinkunnu community is vulnerable to uncontrolled water hyacinth growth. The findings reveal significant environmental degradation, economic losses, especially income from fishing activities, and health risks associated with unchecked water hyacinth growth, highlighting the vulnerability of the affected communities. The study also identifies local knowledge and community engagement as critical components in developing sustainable management strategies that align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By proposing innovative solutions like biofertilizer production, the research emphasizes the need for integrated management practices that control the spread of water hyacinth and enhance community resilience and economic opportunities.
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Introduction
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) presents a significant ecological, economic, and social threat to wetlands and freshwater environments, driving global changes. The invasive plant species degrades water quality, reduces biodiversity, and adversely affects local communities dependent on these ecosystems for fishing and livelihood development1,2,3. However, water hyacinths are among the top 10, introduced across 141 countries globally with significant socio-ecological and economic losses4,5,6.
In Africa, Lake Victoria and Tana have experienced severe infestations, leading to reduced fish populations, hindered transportation, and increased waterborne diseases7,8. Similarly, in Asia, countries like the Philippines, China, and Vietnam have reported substantial economic losses due to water hyacinth blocking irrigation channels and reducing agricultural productivity9,10,11. Water hyacinth causes considerable harm, with limited findings concerning sustainable management12,13. Despite these widespread impacts, there is a notable lack of studies focusing on community-driven approaches and vulnerability assessments, particularly in rural areas.
The management of water hyacinth proliferation mainly concentrated on biological and chemical control strategies. In India, although there were efforts in the management of water hyacinths, conventional management efforts have relied predominantly on biological and chemical controls, which often prove ineffective14,15,16,17. Due to the more significant availability of freshwater bodies in India, the country’s 24 states often suffer from water hyacinth proliferating in numerous water sources such as rivers, lakes, canals, and wetlands, and the plant has negatively impacted the ecosystem as well as people’s sources of income15,18,19.
Converting water hyacinth biomass into nutrient-rich organic fertilizers through composting can provide an innovative solution to mitigate the impact of water hyacinth on rural agricultural productivity20,21. This approach addresses the challenges faced in rural communities and provides a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers, potentially reducing input costs for farmers and improving soil health. However, researchers have overlooked community-driven methods of control that promote sustainable livelihoods. Figure 1 presents the water hyacinth global distribution and continents.
World map depicting water hyacinth spatial distribution across countries (data Source: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org, CABI, 2025).
The red points in the Fig. 1, world map depicting water hyacinth spatial distribution across countries. The map was generated using QGIS software (Version 10.8), utilizing open-source spatial data. The distribution points were sourced from the CABI Invasive Species Compendium (2025), providing global records on the presence of water hyacinth in 141 countries. This visual supports the global context and urgency of sustainable management interventions. Hence, researchers need to look at the prospect of collaborative regional water hyacinth management plans, where this invasive species has had massive ramifications on the ecological and socio-economic systems5,22,23. Access to clean and sufficient drinking water and sanitation still presents a significant obstacle, and water hyacinth invasion complicates these issues24.
The effective management of water hyacinth needs a vast understanding of its global impacts and distribution, and scientific vulnerability assessment is essential to understand the extent of rural communities’ exposure to the severity of water hyacinth proliferation for the development of relevant solutions, considering community-led initiatives and sustainable, innovative approaches25,26. Furthermore, sustainable development in the affected areas needs sustainable strategies and understanding of the region’s socio-economic and environmental consequences of water hyacinth invasion.
The effective management of water hyacinth needs a broad understanding of its global impacts, morphology, and distribution, as well as the development of relevant solutions, considering community-led initiatives and sustainable, innovative approaches5. The Kuttanad region is facing significant challenges due to the uncontrolled proliferation of water hyacinths, affecting the ecosystem health and disrupting socio-economic activities on water bodies, reducing fish populations, obstructing agricultural irrigation, and posing health implications to the local population. The community has made limited progress in implementing effective management measures, which is unsustainable. This research examines sustainable, innovative water hyacinth management strategies.
The management of water hyacinth aligns closely with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). This study improves water quality, enhances biodiversity, and promotes sustainable livelihoods by addressing water hyacinth proliferation, supporting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development27. However, addressing the complex socio-ecological impacts of water hyacinth in alignment with SDG targets requires a guiding framework that integrates environmental vulnerability, participatory governance, and livelihood resilience principles embedded in the conceptual model adopted in this study.
Conceptual framework
This study adopts the Integrated Socio-Ecological Vulnerability and Livelihood Resilience Framework, which synthesizes three interrelated domains: environmental vulnerability, participatory governance, and sustainable livelihood transformation. The framework is designed to guide the analysis of invasive species challenges, particularly water hyacinth, in complex rural ecosystems. Grounded in the principles of the Environmental Vulnerability Index (EVI), which enables systematic prioritization of ecological risk in vulnerable regions28,29. It also draws upon frameworks emphasizing stakeholder coordination and inclusive governance in invasive species management9as well as the need for paradigm shifts toward community-based, adaptive strategies for managing tropical aquatic invasives30.
Additionally, it aligns with the logic of the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI), ensuring that household-level sensitivities are quantitatively reflected in the Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) used in this study31,32,33. This theoretical orientation allows us to view water hyacinth not merely as an environmental hazard, but as a bioeconomic opportunity when managed through local knowledge and inclusive innovation. The framework informs all stages of this research particularly the use of PGIS, the CVI, and the co-designed, community-led biofertilizer intervention. Figure 2 visually represents the interlinkages among drivers, impacts, and integrated management strategies that underpin sustainable ecosystem and livelihood outcomes.
Conceptual framework for water hyacinth proliferation and Management strategies.
The framework maps the key drivers environmental factors, anthropogenic activities, and biological characteristics of water hyacinth proliferation. These drivers contribute to multiple dimensions of impact, including environmental, economic, and social, which in turn affect progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The model proposes integrated management strategies comprising preventive measures, control and removal techniques, innovative utilization approaches, and community-based interventions aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts while enhancing resilience. It further highlights integrated management strategies, including preventive measures, removal strategies, innovative utilization, and community-based approaches, to mitigate these impacts effectively11,14,34.
A critical gap in the literature on water hyacinth management lies in the lack of community-driven frameworks that integrate local knowledge, participation, and socio-economic development. While numerous studies focus on technological solutions and top-down policies such as mechanical removal, biomass conversion30,35,36,37a few studies emphasized on the empowerment of local communities in the management process29,38,39,40. This research gap is particularly evident in the Kuttanad region of India, where external interventions often overlooked the potential of community involvement in sustainable solutions. The current research directly addresses this gap by exploring the development of a community-centered biofertilizer intervention as needed by the community, that not only mitigates the environmental impact of water hyacinth but also provides socio-economic benefits to local households and long-term sustainability.
The current study posits that invasive species management in ecologically fragile, socioeconomically dependent communities must go beyond mechanical removal and adopt an integrated, community-driven, and innovation-oriented approach. Using the case of Pulinkunnu, Kerala, we argue that water hyacinth, while ecologically disruptive, can be transformed into a bioeconomic asset when local knowledge, participatory governance, and sustainable reuse strategies such as biofertilizer production are combined. This position is informed by global experiences such as Brazil’s bioeconomy initiatives for aquatic weed reuse30Uganda’s failures with mechanical-only control, current utilized water hyacinth as sustainable resources for biofertilizer and biogas production41,42and regional cases like Bangladesh’s participatory wetland governance43. These comparisons highlight both the risks and the untapped potential of invasive biomass. This framing guides our study design, which centres on co-developing SDG-aligned solutions to aquatic invasion challenges in wetland-agriculture communities.
Integrating local knowledge and community engagement in this research emphasized the importance of inclusive governance and participatory approaches in achieving these global goals. The study addresses the following research questions: (a) How is water hyacinth affecting the ecological, social, and economic aspects of Pulinkunnu? (b) What measures have the community and other stakeholders taken toward managing water hyacinth and Vulnerability measures? (c) Is a management framework suitable for Pulinkunnu that integrates ecological, economic, and societal considerations when dealing with water hyacinth?
Therefore, the objectives of the study are (1) To assess the ecological, social, and economic impacts of water hyacinth in Kuttanad region in India, (2) To quantify the vulnerability of local indicators of water hyacinth proliferation impact on the community, (3) To evaluate the effectiveness of community-driven initiatives and alternative strategies for managing water hyacinth and (4) To develop an innovative sustainable management of water hyacinth and assessing the ecological, social, and economic impacts of community engagement in water hyacinth management.
Study area
The research was conducted in Pulinkunnu of Kuttanad wetland in Alappuzha District, Kerala, India and sits 1.5 to 2 m below mean sea level along the Pampa River, forming part of the Ramsardesignated Vembanad backwater system. A dense lattice of canals and backwaters, coupled with tidal influences, creates the hydrological complexity that favours rapid waterhyacinth proliferation. Figure 3 presents a map of Pulinkunnu, outlining its geographical boundaries.
Location of the study area at (A) national, (B) state, (C) district, and (D) village scales.
The island settlement covers 31.53 km2 at 9.455°N latitude and 76.434°E longitude. The panchayat’s tropical monsoon climate brings roughly 2500–2750 mm of annual rainfall and temperatures ranging from 22 °C to 39 °C, conditions that support intensive rice and coconut farming. As of 2024, 20 947 residents in 5 022 households (literacy rate ≈ 98%) rely on livelihoods centred on agriculture, inland fisheries, livestock husbandry, tourism, and government or selfhelpgroup employment44. The sudden expansion of water hyacinth mats has begun to restrict navigation, hamper paddy cultivation, deplete fish stocks, and elevate the prevalence of waterborne diseases, thereby imposing direct economic and health costs on the community.
These interlinked ecological and socioeconomic pressures made Pulinkunnu an ideal site for a microlevel assessment of waterhyacinth impacts and management options. The following sections describe the mixedmethods approach adopted to capture both biophysical and communitylevel data.
Methodology
The study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative data to evaluate uncontrolled water hyacinth proliferation’s socio-economic, environmental, and management practices. A scoping literature review was to synthesize existing research on the socio-economic, environmental, and current management approaches and the vulnerability dynamics of uncontrolled water hyacinth proliferation.
A comprehensive literature review was conducted using multiple academic databases, including Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed, along with grey literature sourced from local authorities and government publications. The inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed journal articles, policy reports, and case studies relevant to water hyacinth management, aquatic ecosystem restoration, and sustainable livelihood interventions.
In total, the study draws from 134 references, classified into 108 peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, 12 documents from government and local authorities, and 12 global open-access sources, including the CABI Invasive Species Compendium, the UN Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Platform, and the UNEP Annual Reports. This multi-source approach enabled the identification of key themes, research gaps, and context-specific strategies for intervention. The integration of both qualitative and quantitative literature enhanced the analytical depth and provided a robust foundation for evidence-informed decision-making throughout the study.
Data collection methods
The research team collected qualitative data through semi-structured questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and Key Informant interviews. In total, 16 participants were interviewed and purposefully selected based on their knowledge and expertise regarding the research objectives. Participants were recruited based on specific criteria, such as direct involvement in water resource management, community leadership roles, documented knowledge of environmental health issues, and the community’s preferences for intervention strategies.
To gather diverse perspectives, opinions, and viewpoints from community members. Seven Focus group discussions were held included farmers, fishermen, self-help groups, local policymakers, and stakeholders. Each group represented by different gender and age (men, women, and young people, with 6–10 participants per group). Discussions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were analyzed to identify key concerns, viewpoints, and significant themes.
A cross-sectional household survey was conducted quantitatively across 189 households, targeting various respondents, and a household survey was conducted through simple random sampling selection criteria, targeting multiple respondents, including farmers, fishermen, community leaders, and women’s groups. The household survey questionnaire comprised 40 questions on a Likert scale and was open-ended to capture quantitative and qualitative insights. The survey instruments include socio-demographic information, economic impacts of water hyacinth, environmental and health impacts, and community perceptions of water hyacinth management strategies. The survey instrument was pre-tested with 10 participants to ensure clarity and relevance before full-scale implementation. Vulnerability indicators were assigned a scale of 1 to 5 according to their Impact, focusing on social, economic, environmental, and management strategies for positive decision-making and intervention.
Participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) mapping
In addition to the household survey, the research team utilized Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) to engage residents in mapping the spatial distribution of water hyacinth across the study area43,45. This participatory mapping exercise provided valuable spatial data on the extent and severity of water hyacinth invasion, and participants marked coordinate locations of water hyacinth infestations, visualized using QGIS software (Version 10.8) to identify hotspot areas for intervention.
Data analysis
Qualitative data was analyzed using manual thematic analysis to understand the recurring themes, patterns, and trends related to the research questions46. The quantitative survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including means, medians, and standard deviations, to summarize the survey data. Additionally, correlation analysis examined the relationship between water hyacinth coverage and economic losses. All statistical analyses with JASP Software (Version 1.09.2), with a significance level set at p < 0.05.
Vulnerability assessment
The vulnerability assessment assessed the community residents’ exposure to water hyacinth impact considering the five dimensions: Environmental, Economic, Social, Health, and Management Strategies47,48. The stakeholders and experts assigned the findings percentages according to severity, and the livelihood aspect was weighted based on the impact on a scale of 5. The weighted scoring system was applied based on expert opinion and stakeholder consultations31. These scores were normalized to a standard scale using the formula:
The “Sub-Index Total” refers to the cumulative weighted value of all the indicators in a particular sub-index, whereas the “Max Score” shows the maximum possible score for that specific sub-index.
The Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) was computed as the weighted sum of all normalized scores, providing a holistic measure of the community’s vulnerability28,47,48. The CVI uses the following formula:
Normalized Score represents the normalized score of each category, and “Weight” means the category’s weight.
The resulting CVI is a composite score of vulnerability that depicts a higher value for vulnerability in the region. An orderly and structured approach to vulnerability assessment assists in determining the driving forces behind vulnerability and directing interventions towards the decrease in the effects of adverse water hyacinth proliferation.
Ethical consideration
This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations of Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham. Ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Approval No. IHEC/2024/03/21). All research activities were performed in compliance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, ensuring the protection of participants’ rights and well-being. Before engaging in surveys, interviews, and PGIS mapping exercises, all participants were thoroughly informed about the study’s objectives, procedures, and potential risks. Voluntary, informed consent was obtained from each participant, with a clear emphasis on their right to withdraw at any stage without repercussions. Measures were implemented to maintain anonymity and data confidentiality throughout the research process. Data collected were stored securely and accessed only by authorized research personnel. The research team remained sensitive to the socio-cultural context of the study area and ensured that the research methods were culturally appropriate and respectful of local customs and traditions.
Integration of local knowledge
The research integrated traditional knowledge with scientific approaches to increase the knowledge’s relevance and the data’s validity. Researchers used participatory mapping with the community, where community members shared their insights into the water bodies and areas affected by water hyacinths49,50,51,52. The integration guarantees that the research captures the knowledge and experiences of those most impacted by the infestation, closing the gap between scientific research and community action9,53. However, it is crucial to acknowledge potential biases arising from this integration.
For instance, cultural biases can marginalise indigenous perspectives if traditional knowledge is evaluated solely against Western scientific criteria54. However, researchers may introduce information biases by selectively validating conventional knowledge that fits scientific frameworks while overlooking other important aspects. Imbalance, such as historical colonial frameworks, can also influence how traditional knowledge is integrated, potentially leading to co-optation rather than genuine empowerment55. Furthermore, researcher biases, including preconceptions about the validity of traditional knowledge, can distort data interpretation. Combining local knowledge with scientific tools like PGIS and spatial analysis enables the research to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the impact of water hyacinths. This approach also empowers local communities to participate in management and decision-making processes. However, careful consideration is required to ensure equitable representation and avoid biases in the decision-making process.
Results and discussion
Analysis of the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents across multiple variables. Table 1 presents a summary of the socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents, providing context for understanding the community’s vulnerability and perspectives.
The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, presented in Table 1, reveals a well-informed sample population with a balanced gender distribution and widespread awareness of the challenges posed by water hyacinth proliferation. The educational background of participants suggests a strong potential for community engagement in sustainable management initiatives. The research population was well-educated on the balanced gender distribution, high literacy levels, and widespread awareness of environmental issues of water hyacinths among the respondents, suggesting a well-informed and representative sample by strengthening the reliability of the survey results and supporting the development of targeted educational and policy initiatives to promote a sustainable, innovative approach to water hyacinth management with the participation of the community toward achieving SDGs27.
Comparative analysis and policy implications from the global perspective
The findings on the socio-economic and environmental impacts with policy implications of the invasive species like water hyacinths from 10 countries is presented in Table 2.
A global comparative analysis of water hyacinth impacts, as outlined in Table 2, highlights the socio-economic and environmental consequences of infestation across different regions. Socioeconomic and environmental impact along with policies implications experience from 10 countries worldwide. The data emphasize the urgent need for integrated management strategies, drawing on lessons from countries implementing mitigation measures.
Water hyacinth impact evidence across 141 countries invaded wetlands and water bodies globally (CABI, 2025). The pervasive impact of water hyacinth across these 141 countries emphasized the need for coordinated global efforts to manage invasive species like water hyacinth. Thus, effective policies must prioritize integrated management strategies, community engagement, and sustainable practices to mitigate the socio-economic and environmental challenges water hyacinths pose. However, unlike previous studies that focused primarily on biological and chemical control methods, the research highlights the potential of community-driven approaches, such as biofertilizer production with other biodegradable products for sustainable management49,53.
The potential of biofertilizer production from water hyacinth offers a dual benefit: reducing the environmental burden of the invasive species and providing a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers. Analysis of the biofertilizer produced through water hyacinth composting revealed an nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) content for agricultural development83,84,85. Field trials are needed to assess crop yields and soil health improvements86,87. These findings have important policy implications, suggesting local governments should prioritize participatory approaches and integrate traditional knowledge into water hyacinth management strategies.
Mapping the proliferation of water hyacinth
The Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) mapping approach was employed to determine the spatial distribution of water hyacinth. By integrating local knowledge and stakeholder engagement, the PGIS findings revealed the extent of water hyacinth invasion in the study area. The coordinates of invaded areas were captured, and the results are illustrated in Fig. 3, which highlights the most affected regions. This approach enhances decision-making for effective water hyacinth management, promoting equitable and sustainable societal outcomes.
Spatial distribution of water hyacinth infestation and field observations in Pulinkunnu of Kuttanad (Source: Feld survey, 2024).
Figure 4 left panel shows the spatial distribution of water hyacinth infestation based on geo-coordinates collected through Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) exercises with local community members between March and May 2024. Mapping was performed using QGIS software (Version 10.8), utilizing a custom-developed shapefile of Pulinkunnu administrative boundaries created by the research team through local mapping and field surveys. The red dots represent infestation hotspots identified through participatory engagement. The right panel presents field photographs captured by the research team during on-site surveys, documenting the extent and severity of water hyacinth proliferation across key areas. This participatory mapping approach highlights critical infestation zones and supports locally informed, bottom-up intervention planning.
The results indicate a high concentration of water hyacinth infestation in stagnant waterways and nutrient-enriched areas, necessitating targeted intervention strategies. The interview and observation reveal three aquatic weeds in the community, water hyacinth being the dominant approximately 80% coverage qualitatively as compared to water lily and water lettuce43,45. The spatial distribution of water hyacinth is dense in the central areas, where the water bodies are stagnant, canals, residential areas, and nutrient-rich from nearby paddy fields. Hence, warmer temperatures significantly contributed to the high reproductive capacity of water hyacinths88,89.
The impact of the infestation extends beyond environmental degradation, affecting local livelihoods by blocking waterways, which are crucial for fishing and water transportation. The results analysis suggests that the economic vulnerability of the community is due to the impact of uncontrolled water hyacinth invasion5,90. Fishing activities in the affected areas have declined by 75% due to restricted access to fishing grounds, resulting in a significant loss of income from fishing. Furthermore, increased costs associated with water treatment tourism activities such as boating and bird-watching have plummeted in regions where dense mats of water hyacinth impede water navigation and cultural activities on the water bodies; these challenges have placed a financial strain on local households and local authorities91,92,93. There is a need for sustainable management practices that consider the residents’ vulnerability.
Vulnerability impact assessment of water hyacinth proliferation
Table 3 provides a comparative analysis of the effectiveness of different water hyacinth management strategies. Results showed that water hyacinth proliferation has significantly impacted the ecological and socio-economic structure, as exhibited by the qualitative vulnerability assessment indicators obtained from the survey, stakeholder perspectives, and community experiences.
The vulnerability assessment, summarized in Table 3, categorizes the most pressing socio-economic, environmental, and health-related impacts of water hyacinth in Pulinkunnu. The findings exhibits the financial strain on fishing communities, increased water treatment costs, and loss of biodiversity due to uncontrolled proliferation. Furthermore, the challenges such as water scarcity, reduced fish catch and agricultural productivity and health issues such as skin diseases and waterborne diseases associated with water hyacinth invasion exacerbate the problem, which also affects irrigation and drinking water sources and has a significant impact on crop yield and food availability as seen from the vulnerability impact assessment localized indicators49,94.
The invasion of water hyacinth has far-reaching implications for ecosystem balance, societal well-being, and public health is the study region5. The consequences of the rapid growth include cultural disruptions, resource scarcity, and increased vulnerability of sensitive populations95. Furthermore, environmental degradation is evident in changing microclimates, erosion, and sedimentation. The current research emphasizes the need for sustainable water hyacinth management to mitigate its impact on social-ecological systems. The study integrated vulnerability assessment to understand the dynamics of water hyacinth impact and management and contribute to achieving Target 15.8 of the SDGs 2030 Agenda, which focuses on managing invasive species27.
Economically, the loss of livelihood assets and extra water treatment costs aggravate the decrease in fishing and agricultural revenue, compromising the community’s financial stability. Environmentally, water hyacinth causes notable changes in the local ecology that compromise biodiversity and influence local climatic patterns, including more sedimentation and erosion96,97,98. These environmental changes support social and economic issues by restricting access to clean water, lowering mobility on the water bodies, and thus diminishing market possibilities.
The psychological consequences, which include stress and anxiety related to mental health issues for removing the water hyacinth, show the more significant influence of changed conventional behaviours and group identity on society99. The major vulnerable indicators are pressing themes threatening the livelihoods of the community residents.
Vulnerability and impacts of water hyacinth proliferation
The vulnerability factors across categories are interrelated, which allows for an understanding of the relative severity of different impacts, revealing the complex relation between environment, economics, and social factors, which are profoundly interlinked. Figure 5 presents the environmental, economic, and social vulnerabilities and summarises the various pressing indicators impacted by water hyacinth proliferation from the community perspective.
Water hyacinth impact indicators Vulnerabilities.
Vulnerabilities rank highest for water quality and cultural impacts, highlighting the difficulties community members experience in access to water for daily usage and water-related societal cohesion activities, respectively. Water quality and cultural implications are urgent environmental and social issues100. Economic weaknesses, such as water treatment expenses and well-being, weather conditions and policies, emphasised the need for substantial financial assistance and ecosystem dynamics by strengthening the policies on invasive species management101,102. Management aspects scored lower but emphasised the need for governance and stakeholder participation to reduce environmental and socio-economic risks.
Vulnerability scores reveal pressing considerations suggesting critical development areas, such as environmental degradation, economic resilience and improving policy efficacy with stakeholder engagement103. The impact shows how complex and linked vulnerability indicators are, where environmental concerns affect economic and social outcomes, and the result exhibits the need for multi-disciplinary vulnerability assessment and mitigation strategies.
Vulnerability and livelihoods
The Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) result is 3.56 on a scale of 5, highlighting the high vulnerability of the community, significantly impacted by the uncontrolled water hyacinth proliferation affecting the community’s well-being. Figure 4 presents vulnerability indicators in percentage used by water hyacinth, clearly indicating the most affected emerged from themes. Figure 5 illustrates the environmental, economic, and social vulnerabilities associated with water hyacinth invasion in the study region, along with management and control measures and the affected categories.
Major vulnerability categories from uncontrolled water hyacinth invasion.
Figure 6 presents vulnerability indicators ratings ranging from 50 to 93, significantly affecting fishing activities, followed by water quality, biodiversity loss, and awareness programs. The result reveals which regions are more prone to adverse effects; the relative strengths and weaknesses within every category show that variables linked to economic vulnerability, such as fishing activities and water quality, score the highest at 93% and 83%, respectively26. Findings imply that economic elements, particularly livelihood activities, are significantly impacted.
Management and Control Vulnerability, especially financial availability and awareness programs, are somewhat lower, between 50% and 55%, indicating potential gaps in funding and community awareness efforts that could hinder effective management and mitigation strategies for water hyacinth proliferation. Concurrent with this, environmental vulnerability indicators such as water quality and biodiversity loss also score highly at 83% and 80%, highlighting important ecological issues that need immediate action6,30. The comprehensive analysis shows the complex impact of water hyacinth, where both ecological and socio-economic dimensions create a compounded vulnerability profile for residents in the community19.
In addition to economic impacts, the spread of water hyacinth has caused severe health concerns, including increased incidences of waterborne diseases such as malaria and cholera, particularly in areas with stagnant water104. The differences in scores across categories emphasize the complex character of the vulnerabilities and the requirement of a comprehensive strategy in the development of policies and intervention design as the subsequent section will discuss the impact on sustainable development pillars.
Impact of water hyacinth proliferation on sustainable development pillars
The United Nations-adopted SDGs provide a framework for global sustainable development, primarily focusing on economic, social, and environmental pillars27,105. However, the monetary aspect promotes decent work, economic growth, and poverty reduction; the social dimension promotes education, health, and justice; and the environmental pillar protects the planet and its resources. The interconnection of these pillars underlines the necessity of a balanced approach to sustainable development goals. Furthermore, understanding how water hyacinth invasion affects these SDG pillars is crucial for building appropriate management plans and promoting sustainable development in affected areas, highlighting the significant and varied impacts of water hyacinth proliferation on social, economic, and environmental aspects28,101.
Environmental impact
The proliferation of water hyacinths significantly affects the environment, as highlighted by the distribution of responses regarding different environmental factors (Fig. 7). Figure 7 shows the median values across all categories with significant environmental effects on a scale 5. The variations in the distributions imply that the degree of these effects is not homogeneous in many spheres, with ratings ranging from 4 to 5. However, the effect leads to habitat damage, water quality deterioration, and the loss of biodiversity106,107. A broader distribution in categories such as water quality impact reveals significant concern about water quality degradation due to water hyacinth invasion of the water bodies. The consequences significantly impacted aquatic ecosystems, compromising their capacity to provide essential ecosystem services such as reducing marine animals and flood control.
Environmental impact of water hyacinth proliferation across major categories.
Social impact
The social impact shows the distribution and density of responses for various social factors in Fig. 8.
Social impact of water hyacinth proliferation across major categories.
Figure 8, reveals substantial impacts across all categories, with median values indicating widespread effects. Health issues, sanitation, and recreational activities are the most widely felt, with a median impact score of 5. The symmetric data distributions with higher density indicate a concentration of responses, suggesting that many respondents experienced similar levels of impact. However, the varying distributions showed that the severity of these impacts differs significantly across communities. Notably, Water hyacinths restrict access to water resources for farming and fishing, causing financial difficulty for nearby populations62,108,109.
Water hyacinth has equally significant societal effects on public health, fishing communities, and recreational activities110. Furthermore, stagnant water bodies produced by the spread of water hyacinths create a breeding ground for pests and mosquitoes that spread diseases, among other health implications within the community.
Economic impact
Figure 9 presents the impact across different economic themes in the study area. It indicates the range and density of responses, helping to identify the most and least affected economic category.
Economic impact of water hyacinth proliferation across major categories.
Results of Fig. 9 reveal that water transportation disruption is a primary concern for the respondents, impacting economic activities with a rating of 5. In contrast, with the broader data distribution, tourism activities and impact rating of 4 exhibits an economic impact felt in the community. Water hyacinth spread significantly imposed an economic burden on the rural livelihood, leading to financial losses in removing water hyacinth from paddy fields and the water bodies, reducing fishing income and tourism111.
Water hyacinth management expenses such as mechanical removal or chemical control can tax municipal budgets and impede economic growth112,113. The results across the pillars show that the median values calculated for every category represent significant levels of impact; however, the dispersion pattern of these impacts exhibits differences, potentially implying that the loss is not equally unbearable for all the community residents affected.
Community perspectives and comparative analysis of water hyacinth management approaches
Community criticism emphasises a preference for innovative management strategies integrating local knowledge with sustainable practices, such as organic fertiliser production and handicrafts from water hyacinths. The engagement of local stakeholders through participatory mapping and FGDs indicates a strong willingness to collaborate on sustainable solutions114. The findings of this study reveal the various socio-economic forms, as well as ecological and health consequences resulting from the spread of water hyacinth. The variety of effects demonstrates that the issue requires the assessment and immediate involvement of all stakeholders alongside the development of sustainable livelihoods, including environmental management techniques51. Current policies regarding water hyacinth management may focus on mechanical removal, which is not sustainable. However, our findings suggest that a more integrated approach is needed to address the underlying causes of proliferation and promote sustainable solutions.
A comparative analysis with international case studies highlights both everyday challenges and distinct approaches to water hyacinth management. While large-scale, state-driven interventions, such as those in Thailand115,116,117 and Brazil14prioritize mechanical removal and biomass conversion, the Kuttanad region emphasizes a community-centered approach that integrates local knowledge and participatory methods to develop sustainable biofertilizer solutions. This contrasts with strategies in Kenya118,119 and in Uganda120,121where water hyacinth management often lacks a socio-economic empowerment component for local communities. In Kuttanad, water hyacinth management is not only an environmental issue but also an opportunity for socio-economic development, particularly through the co-design of biofertilizer interventions, which aligns with the SDGs (UN, 2015). This multifaceted approach combining environmental, economic, and social outcomes offers a distinct model that contrasts with conventional techniques, demonstrating the potential for replicating community-centered strategies in other regions with similar ecological and socio-economic challenges.
The role of SDGs in water hyacinths utilization and actionable policies
SDGs) emphasise the importance of a balanced approach to regional sustainable development. In this research, several targets benefit from utilising water hyacinth sustainably as a potential natural resource for livelihood development, as presents in Fig. 10.
The interconnectedness of specific targets within the SDGs.
Figure 10 presents interconnected goals and targets relevant to water hyacinth control and the possible advantages of a collaborative management approach for sustainable management practice122,123124,125. Water hyacinth management strategies can contribute toward achieving the SDGs by tackling the environmental, social, and economic losses in the area experienced by the uncontrolled proliferation of the water hyacinth.
Several SDGs are especially relevant to water hyacinth’s innovative application, including gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent employment and economic growth, and responsible consumption and production126. Among these advantages, empowering women, improving water quality, supporting renewable energy, generating jobs, and encouraging sustainable integrated management practices among the residents of rural areas can positively improve livelihood standards by utilising water hyacinth as a resource for economic development.
Aligning water hyacinth management strategies with SDGs Table 4 outlines key policy recommendations and intervention strategies. These include promoting biofertilizer production, strengthening community-based removal programs, and enforcing stricter environmental regulations to mitigate further spread.
Table 4 presents a valuable foundation for understanding the possible benefits of water hyacinth use for sustainable development. Water hyacinth management could offer various opportunities by addressing multiple SDGs simultaneously: enhanced water quality, environmental sustainability, economic development, job creation, and social well-being in the rural areas affected126,127. Further research is necessary to explore the potential of water hyacinth for sustainable development, and additional study and creative application of novel ideas are required considering community-led sustainable management initiatives.
Limitations and future research
The representative sample size of households may not capture the full diversity of experiences in Pulinkunnu. Second, the study focused on a single region, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Future research should explore the socioeconomic returns of alternative management strategies, such as biofertilizer production, in the other areas affected by water hyacinths128,129,130,131. Additionally, longitudinal studies are needed to assess the long-term effectiveness of community-driven approaches in reducing water hyacinth proliferation and enhancing livelihoods.
Findings align with previous research on the socioeconomic impacts of water hyacinths on rural communities5,50. However, our study provides a more nuanced understanding of the specific challenges and vulnerabilities faced by communities in the Kuttanad region, characterized by its unique below-sea-level ecosystem. Unlike studies focusing on biological control59this research highlights the importance of community engagement and sustainable livelihood development for effective water hyacinth management.
Vulnerability assessments have been used in various contexts to understand the susceptibility of communities to environmental changes132,133. The Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) to assess the vulnerability of the Kuttanad community to water hyacinth infestation builds upon existing methodologies, providing a quantitative measure to track the effectiveness of interventions and compare vulnerability across different communities.
The findings emphasize the need to create integrated management plans that consider long-term environmental restoration initiatives along with quick control actions. Priority should focus on community involvement, legislative support, and sustainable livelihood options, including manufacturing biofertilizers to mitigate the adverse effects and foster resilience.
Practical implications
The findings of this study have strong applicability for policy makers, development planners, and community-based practitioners working in ecologically sensitive wetland areas. The integration of Participatory GIS (PGIS) and the Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) offers a scalable and cost-effective tool for spatial prioritization and monitoring of aquatic invasive species. This toolkit can assist local planning departments, disaster management cells, and panchayat engineers in identifying invasion hotspots and guiding targeted interventions. Direct beneficiaries include local governments, water-resource managers, and rural development officers, while indirect beneficiaries encompass regional SDG monitoring agencies and academic institutions seeking to apply vulnerability mapping in similar socio-ecological contexts.
In addition, the study’s community-led biofertilizer intervention model demonstrates how water hyacinth can be repositioned from an environmental hazard to a bioeconomic resource, supporting SDG 6 (Clean Water), SDG 8 (Decent Work), and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). This model is directly relevant for agricultural extension services, self-help groups, women’s cooperatives, and rural entrepreneurs focused on organic input production. It also provides governance insights for participatory decision-making, inclusive budgeting, and local stewardship of wetland ecosystems. By framing water hyacinth management through circular economy principles and participatory governance, the research supports mainstreaming such initiatives into climate adaptation funding, rural employment schemes, and sustainable waste management programmes. In doing so, it benefits not only direct actors in the value chain but also indirect stakeholders such as biodiversity boards, CSR funders, and downstream communities who stand to gain from restored ecosystem services.
Conclusion
This research examined how the invasion of water hyacinth affected the environment, socioeconomic structures, and the current management practices in the study region. The high median scores across all three areas underline the severity of the issue, while the variability in responses points to the need for context-specific interventions. Effective management strategies must be multi-faceted, incorporating community engagement, economic support, and robust environmental management to mitigate the wide-ranging effects of water hyacinth proliferation.
The study reveals the complex and interconnected impacts of water hyacinth proliferation on the ecological, social, and economic systems in Pulinkunnu, Kerala. The findings highlight the need for a comprehensive management approach. Such an approach should integrate community engagement, sustainable livelihood practices, and effective environmental management strategies to mitigate the adverse effects and promote resilience.
Community-driven initiatives, such as participatory mapping and PGIS, provide valuable insights into local challenges and potential solutions. This research emphasizes local communities’ role in environmental governance by actively incorporating local stakeholders, contributing to the more significant debate on sustainable management techniques. While suggesting feasible and sustainable management solutions, the research involves local people using participatory approaches to provide a comprehensive grasp of the intricate consequences of water hyacinths. The findings have significant implications for the formulation of policies as they show that successful management of invading species depends on empowering local people and supporting inclusive governance structures.
Policymakers should develop guidelines for community-based water hyacinth management, providing financial and technical support for local initiatives. Specifically, the government could offer subsidies for composting equipment or training programs for biofertilizer production in the affected region. Policies should incentivize the production and use of biofertilizer from water hyacinths, reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and creating livelihood opportunities for local communities. Applying the Composite Vulnerability Index (CVI) to assess the vulnerability of the Kuttanad community to water hyacinth infestation builds upon existing methodologies, providing a quantitative measure to track the effectiveness of interventions and compare vulnerability across different communities.
Future research should concentrate on creating versatile frameworks applicable to other situations, improving ecological resilience and community welfare. Researchers should establish replications in different parts of the world impacted by water hyacinths and further examine the socioeconomic returns of other management approaches. There are concrete social impacts resulting from water hyacinth invasion on rural communities. An analytical and combined approach supporting water resource management, communities, health, sanitation, and economic development is required to overcome these challenges. The policymakers and leaders of the communities can reduce the devastating effects of water hyacinths and the sustainable development for livelihood improvement in the impacted region.
Data availability
The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Acknowledgements
We extend our deepest gratitude to the E4LIFE International Ph.D. The Fellowship Programme at Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham made this research possible. We also sincerely thank the Amrita School for Sustainable Futures and the Amrita Live-in-Labs® academic program for their invaluable support, which significantly contributed to our success.
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Aji A: Writing original draft, Visualization, Software, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, and Data curation. Richa G: Software, Resources, Methodology, Formal Analysis. Sabarinath S: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Prasad Kaparaju: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
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Abba, A., Sankarannair, S., Gautam, R. et al. Integrating local knowledge and innovative approaches for sustainable water hyacinth management towards livelihoods enhancement in rural India. Sci Rep 15, 26233 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10507-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10507-y
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