Introduction

Firefighting is widely recognized to be one of the most dangerous occupations and has been ranked as the fifth most perilous occupation in North America1,2. On March 21, 2018, the Chinese government issued the Program for Deepening the Reform of Party and State Institutions, which removed the public security and firefighting forces from active service as part of the Armed Police Force. After the reform, some firefighters became civil servants, while others became non-civil service employees. In addition, the active-duty establishment has been completely converted to an administrative establishment3. As the result of Post-Military Reform, the sense of “military honor” and “cohesive disciplinary unit belonging” associated with active service has weakened. Some firefighters perceive that “removing the uniform removes the glory,” leading to diminished social recognition and self-worth. Transition from lifelong military service to contract-performance-based systems creates uncertainty, especially for married personnel.

The purpose of this initiative is to align the development direction of China’s firefighting teams with international standards and build a professional firefighting force. The transfer of the firefighters from military to civilian roles has given them a flexible mechanism of entry and exit from the profession, which has negatively impacted the stability of firefighting team. A survey found that, after the implementation of this reform in one province, the turnover rate for full-time firefighters at one point reached 50% due to low salary and high work pressure4.

Moreover, the training systems for firefighters have also undergone changes following the reform of the fire services. New firefighters are required more than 10 months of closed pre-service training before they can enter formal firefighting and rescue activities. Given that this is the case, the high turnover rate of firefighters leads to a substantial waste of social resources and negatively affects the stability of the group, resulting in disorganized staff and inexperienced firefighters, which ultimately affects the capacity and efficiency of national emergency services. Therefore, it is necessary to study the relevant influencing factors of firefighters’ turnover to reduce their departure rate and enhance the stability of the firefighting team.

Work stress can lead to mental health symptoms such as burnout, compassion fatigue, and mental and physical injuries5,6. Firefighters may experience higher levels of work stress than corporate or government clerks, as workers in those occupations do not have to deal with rescue scenarios. Work stress also increases the rate of accidents, absenteeism, and turnover in the working population, leading to a decrease in work productivity7. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors affecting the work stress of firefighters and their influence mechanism so as to reduce their work stress, minimize their turnover rate, and maintain the overall stability of the firefighting team.

The relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress in firefighters

Firefighters typically work in a tense environment to prepare for emergencies in which they must encounter and deal with the injuries or deaths of their fellow firefighters or other victims. These negative events create considerable stress for them. Byrne et al. stated that those who have witnessed a severely traumatic or catastrophic event and who have easy access to detailed information about the situation, or have a responsibility to help, will have a traumatizing experience that triggers a discomfort response, creating vicarious traumatization8.

Vicarious traumatization results from indirect exposure to a severely traumatic event that causes psychological reactions similar to those of the individuals who personally suffered the event9. Firefighters, for example, are a population prone to experiencing vicarious traumatization9,10. This is because they typically must interact and empathize with traumatized individuals, triggering the formation of vicarious traumatization3.

According to conservation of resources (COR) theory11, individuals strive to protect, retain, and acquire valued resources (physical, emotional, social, or cognitive). Stress occurs when resources are threatened, lost, or fail to regenerate after investment. Studies have shown that vicarious traumatization should be considered an occupational hazard12 that affects several aspects of an individual’s psyche, causing them to accumulate stress13,14. Zhong15 suggested that vicarious traumatization can lead to changes in helpers’ worldview or life beliefs, and these changes can indirectly lead to a range of physical and psychological disturbances if they exceed the individual’s psychological and emotional tolerance thresholds. In severe cases, vicarious traumatization can even create such stress as to one’s life or work. Therefore, the present study hypothesizes that vicarious traumatization in firefighters significantly and positively predicts their work stress (H1).

The mediating role of work alienation

Based on COR theory11, vicarious trauma depletes firefighters’ psychological resources, triggering work alienation as a defensive mechanism. Alienation then amplifies job stress by impeding resource recovery and reinvestment. Exposure to trauma narratives/images consumes emotional resources (e.g., empathy capacity) and cognitive resources16 (e.g., worldview coherence). Repeated high-intensity rescues (e.g., fatal accidents) accelerate resource loss, leaving individuals vulnerable to defensive detachment17.

When key resources (emotional, cognitive, or energetic) are depleted by stressors (e.g., vicarious trauma), individuals engage in defensive disengagement17.

COR theory predicts that resource loss is the principal ingredient in the stress process11. Studies have also shown that the experience of vicarious traumatization affects individuals’ mood and cognition18 and can lead to changes in their work beliefs15. Therefore, when firefighters experience vicarious traumatization, they may change their original intention to join the profession because of changes in their mood or cognition, and they may become negative about their work, resulting work alienation.

In addition, Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal theory also posits that individuals’ cognitive appraisal of an environmental event affects their emotional and stress responses19. Therefore, when employees feel detached from their work, they may perceive their work as meaningless, boring, or inconsistent with their values. This negative cognitive appraisal triggers negative emotions, in turn increasing work stress. In addition, work alienation can cause employees to develop excessive worries and fears about the challenges and difficulties they face at work. They may exaggerate the problems they experience at work and believe that they cannot cope with them, thus increasing their psychological stress.

Studies have also shown that work alienation in healthcare workers has an impact on their work stress through the dimensions of powerlessness and social isolation20, and that work alienation in secondary school teachers is a significant predictor of work stress21. Therefore, the present study hypothesizes that feelings of work alienation mediate the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress (H2). The corresponding model is presented in Fig. 1.

In summary, working from the framework of COR theory, this study examines the mediating role of work alienation between vicarious traumatization and work stress in firefighters. To address this question, a questionnaire was administered to working firefighters to collect data, and the relationships among the variables were explored through structural equation modeling. This model helps us understand the link between work alienation and work stress in firefighters and the mechanisms by which that relationship is mediated, providing theoretical support for interventions to enhance workforce stability and occupational mental health in the firefighting profession.

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
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Mediated model hypothesis diagram.

Methods

Participants and measurement procedures

From October, 2024, to December, 2024, a web-based questionnaire platform (https://www.wjx.cn/) was used to distribute the questionnaire to the general contact platform of a provincial fire brigade, which then forwarded it to all fire brigades.

The study was approved by the research ethics committee of the College of Art and Child Education, Yango University, and the data collection progress was in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all the participants. When subjects complete the questionnaire, they will first read the informed consent form on the opening page. The informed consent form informs the participant that their responses are anonymous and confidential, and that they can withdraw at any time during the completion process. Only after the firefighter has read and agreed to these terms can they proceed to complete the formal questionnaire.

The collected data were screened according to the criterion that subjects who responded negatively to the polygraph question “I have not travelled to all the countries of the world” were considered invalid. A total of 455 questionnaires were initially collected, and after screening, a final sample of 397 valid questionnaires remained, yielding a validity rate of 87.25%. All 397 firefighters were male, reflecting the gender makeup of the profession as a whole. The maximum age was 59 years, the minimum age was 18 years, and the mean age was 27.44 years (SD = 5.78).

Research tools

Vicarious traumatization questionnaire

The 22-question Impact of the Event Scale-Revised complied by Horowitz et al.22 and revised by Weiss23 was used in this study. The Chinese version of the scale has been successfully applied in prior studies using samples of Chinese adults24. All items are scored on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 = not at all to 4 = extremely frequent. The higher the score, the higher the current level of vicarious traumatization. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.98.

Work alienation questionnaire

The eight-question scale compiled by Nair & Vohra25 was used in this study. The Chinese version of this scale has been successfully used with employees of enterprises in China in prior studies26. The questionnaire uses a five-point Likert scale, from 1 = very different to 5 = very much agree. The higher the score, the higher the level of individual work alienation. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.93.

Work stress questionnaire

The seven-item scale compiled by House & Rizzo27 was used. This scale’s Chinese version has been successfully used with the employees of enterprises in China in prior studies28. All items are scored on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, with higher scores representing higher levels of work stress in individuals. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.89.

Data analysis

Mplus 7.4 and SPSS25 software were used for data processing and structural equation modelling. The specific analytical procedures used were as follows.

  1. (1)

    Descriptive and correlation analyses of the variables were conducted using SPSS25.

  2. (2)

    Mplus 7.4 was used to examine the mediating role of work alienation in the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress in firefighters. The bias-corrected nonparametric percentile bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effects. This method enables researchers to obtain accurate confidence intervals for the mediating effect of the product of regression coefficients. It can handle nonnormal data, and a significant mediating effect is indicated if the 95% confidence interval obtained does not contain zero29.

Results

Common method bias test

The data used in this study were collected through self-reported measures. Procedural safeguards were implemented during data collection to mitigate potential common method bias. These measures included utilizing questionnaires that contained reverse-scored items and emphasizing the confidentiality and anonymity of the test to the test-takers during the testing process. To assess potential common method bias, we conducted Harman’s one-way test, which involved a one-way factor analysis conducted using Mplus 7.4, in which context all questionnaire items were used as indicators. The results indicated a poor fit of the model based on the following fit indices: χ2/df = 4.83, RMSEA = 0.10, CFI = 0.71, and SRMR = 0.13. Therefore, this study did not detect significant common method bias.

Descriptive statistics of each variable

Pearson correlation coefficients were used to assess the relationships among the variables to determine the closeness of the relationships among variables and prepare for the structural equation model. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis are presented in Table 1. No significant associations were found between age and any of the variables, as shown in Table 1. Vicarious traumatization was positively related to work alienation and work stress. Work alienation was positively related to work stress. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis indicate close relationships among the main variables, and structural equation modelling can be attempted to analyse the data further.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of each variable and the results of their correlation analysis.
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The mediating role of work alienation

To test the two hypotheses proposed in this study, the mediating role of work alienation in the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress was examined by developing structural equation models using each questionnaire topic or dimension as an observational indicator.

First, we examined the predictive effect of firefighter vicarious traumatization on work stress, and the results indicated that the model fit well (χ2/df = 2.64, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, and SRMR = 0.04). The direct effects model is shown in Fig. 2, according to which firefighters’ vicarious traumatization significantly and positively predicted their work stress (β = 0.57, p < 0.001), H1 was verified. This finding suggests a robust relationship between these two factors, and mediating variables can be included to investigate the relation between firefighters’ vicarious traumatization and work stress in further detail.

Fig. 2
Fig. 2
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Direct effect model diagram.

Figure 2: Results presented in the figure are standardized solutions; WS means topic load of work stress; *** indicates p < 0.001.

Next, the mediating role of work alienation in the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress among firefighters was examined. The results indicated that the mediation model fit well: χ2/df = 2.43, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.04. The mediation model is shown in Fig. 3. The model results indicated that vicarious traumatization significantly and positively predicted work alienation (β = 0.27, p < 0.001). Work alienation significantly and positively predicted work stress (β = 0.75, p < 0.01). The results indicated that each pathway for this mediating influence was significant and could be used to examine the mediating effect of work alienation on the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress among firefighters.

Fig. 3
Fig. 3
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Diagram of mediated model.

Figure 3: Figures presented in the figure are standardized solutions; WA means topic load of work alienation; WS means topic load of work stress; *** indicates p < 0.001.

The bias-corrected nonparametric percentile bootstrap method (5000 replicate samples) was used to investigate whether the mediating effect of work alienation on the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress among firefighters (see Table 2 for the results).

As shown in Table 2, the mediating effect of work alienation on the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress among firefighters was significant (with a mediating effect value of 0.34, p < 0.001, 95% CI = [0.28, 0.42]); thus, H2 was verified.

Table 2 Mediated effect values and bootstrap test results.
Full size table

Discussion

Working from the frameworks of COR theory, this study used questionnaires to collect data and built a mediation model to explore the relationships among firefighters’ vicarious traumatization, work alienation, and work stress. Our main findings reveal that firefighters’ vicarious traumatization significantly affects their work stress, and that work alienation plays a mediating role in this affective process.

Impact of firefighter vicarious traumatization on work stress

Our findings show that vicarious traumatization significantly and positively affects firefighters’ work stress, reflecting similar results from a prior study14. Studies have demonstrated that catastrophic events cause severe dual physical and psychological trauma to those exposed, leading to negative and long-lasting emotional reactions and behavioral problems, which, in turn, directly affect individuals’ physical and mental health8.

Vicarious traumatization, as an occupational risk12, causes individuals to accumulate stress, leading to changes in their worldview and life beliefs, which indirectly leads to the occurrence of a range of physical and psychological disturbances and increased stress15. Therefore, when firefighters experience vicarious traumatization, it directly affects their work, exhausting them physically and psychologically and aggravating their work stress.

The effect of work alienation

The effect of work alienation on the direct relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress

Based on Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, the attenuation of vicarious trauma’s (VT) direct effect on job stress when work alienation serves as a mediator reflects a critical psychological trade-off: short-term resource conservation at the cost of long-term resource erosion. Initially, work alienation functions as a defensive mechanism to halt immediate resource depletion. When firefighters face VT—such as repeated exposure to trauma through rescue operations—they instinctively withdraw emotionally and cognitively (alienation) to conserve dwindling emotional and cognitive resources. This disengagement temporarily buffers the direct impact of VT on stress by reducing acute emotional overwhelm, thus weakening the observed direct effect (from β = 0.58 to β = 0.24).

However, this apparent attenuation masks a paradoxical escalation of harm. Alienation triggers a loss spiral: by severing social connections and diminishing work meaning, it depletes precisely those resources (e.g., social support, professional identity) needed to sustain resilience. Consequently, while alienation absorbs some initial VT impact, it fuels a stronger indirect pathway to stress through chronic resource deficits. The body’s stress response systems remain directly activated by VT, but alienation’s indirect effects compound this by fostering isolation, skill atrophy, and existential doubt—all accelerating burnout.

Ultimately, the weakened direct effect represents a Faustian bargain. Alienation offers momentary relief by interrupting the trauma-resource drain, yet it deepens vulnerability by starving the individual of resources essential for recovery. This explains why interventions targeting alienation alone fail: true resilience requires rebuilding all depleted resources—not just containing losses.

The mediation role of work alienation in the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress

According to COR11 theory, higher levels of vicarious traumatization (VT) among career firefighters represent a significant depletion of key psychological resources (e.g., emotional energy, cognitive capacity, sense of safety, positive worldview). This resource loss, as evidenced in related studies30, creates fertile ground for heightened work alienation. Banai et al.‘s31 insight aligns with this: a work situation failing to satisfy core needs or expectations deprives employees of essential resources (e.g., meaning, efficacy, belonging), fostering the psychological separation characteristic of work alienation. Similarly, when firefighters experience VT, the resultant negative emotions, cognitive obstacles18, and shifts in fundamental work beliefs deplete the very resources (such as professional identity, sense of purpose or self-efficacy) that previously anchored their work engagement15. This resource depletion can lead firefighters to feel estranged from their original vocational calling, manifesting as work alienation-a state reflecting both ongoing resource loss and blocked resource gain.

Furthermore, the sustained resource depletion heightens vulnerability to stress. Consequently, higher work alienation-itself a marker of chronic resource impoverishment (lacking meaning, power, connection)-impedes firefighters’ ability to acquire, retain, or protect further resources needed to manage job demands. This impaired resource caravan passageway, as supported by similar studies20,21, directly translates into increased perceived job stress.

Significance and contributions

From a theoretical standpoint, this study, based on COR theory, is the first to explore the relationship between vicarious traumatization and work stress in Chinese in-service firefighters, as well as the mechanism of work alienation’s role in that relationship, which holds substantial theoretical and practical significance:

First, deepens the understanding of firefighter mental health mechanisms: firefighters are highly vulnerable to VT and job stress. Organizational reform can disrupt identity, management styles, and career expectations, impacting resource acquisition and maintenance. Second, focusing specifically on work alienation within the COR framework, this study investigates how it acts as a key manifestation of resource loss or blocked resource gain, forming the core pathway through which VT leads to job stress. This provides a more nuanced mechanistic understanding than studying a direct VT-stress link alone, offering a finer-grained picture of the unique mental health challenges faced by reformed firefighters. Third, validates and extends COR theory for high-risk occupations: COR theory posits that individuals strive to obtain, retain, protect, and foster valued resources (objects, conditions, personal characteristics, energies). Stress arises when resources are threatened, lost, or when investment fails to yield adequate returns.

Forth, the study conceptualizes VT as a significant psychological resource depletion event (consuming emotional/cognitive energy, damaging worldviews/safety), work alienation as a maladaptive state of sustained resource loss or blocked gain (lack of meaning/power represent core resource deficits and hinder new resource acquisition), and job stress as the outcome of chronic resource depletion. Testing work alienation’s mediating role empirically validates how resource loss cascades through a specific psychological state (alienation) into stress outcomes within this high-exposure group, enhancing COR theory’s explanatory power in extreme occupational contexts.

Fifth, the study identifies key risk factors in Post-Reform Adaptation: reform can disrupt established resource pathways (e.g., military support networks, identity-based pride, promotion structures), creating uncertainty. In the reform context, preventing or mitigating work alienation might be more effective than solely addressing VT symptoms in blocking the progression to chronic job stress, making it crucial for maintaining mental health and occupational adaptation.

Organizational reform is a major transition, creating unique stressors and resource reconfiguration challenges. Research specifically on this group’s post-reform adaptation provides direct, vital insights for refining reform policies and developing tailored support systems (especially mental health frameworks), addressing a critical gap in understanding populations undergoing such transformation.

Research gaps and future prospects

Although this study provided some interesting results, it has some limitations that should be noted.

First, due to the limitations of the management system, the sample of subjects was relatively homogeneous. Specifically, only men are recruited under the current system; therefore, all of the participants in this study were men. A follow-up study could expand the scope and size of sample collection to further verify the results of this study.

Second, according to Kanungo’s motivational model, work alienation is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon32. Therefore, future analysis and interpretation of work alienation can consider the effects of socio-cultural differences. Future research could further explore the stability of relationships among the variables in different cultural contexts.

Third, the framework of this study can be meaningfully extended to other high-risk and emotionally demanding professions where individuals face chronic exposure to trauma while navigating institutional or role-based tensions. Since the discovery that work alienation serves as a mediator attenuating the direct effect of vicarious trauma (VT) on job stress—through the mechanism of defensive resource reallocation—holds significant cross-conceptual potential beyond firefighting.In essence, defensive resource reallocation is not a niche phenomenon but a fundamental adaptive response to irreplaceable resource loss. Recognizing it as such transforms how we support those who bear witness to societal trauma—whether in burning buildings, hospital wards, or war zones.

Finally, the design of this study was cross-sectional and thus could not verify the causal relationships among variables. A longitudinal research design could instead be used in the future to further reveal the causal relationships among the variables.