Fig. 5

Structural equation model (SEM) showing the direct and indirect effects of climatic and edaphic variables on ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) through biodiversity components. The model includes climate factors (precipitation seasonality [PS], mean annual precipitation [MAP], mean annual temperature [MAT]), soil pH, and biodiversity metrics (species richness [SR], phylogenetic diversity [PD]) as predictors of EMF. Solid arrows represent significant paths (p < 0.05); dashed arrows denote nonsignificant paths. Standardized path coefficients are shown alongside each arrow, with arrow widths scaled proportionally to their absolute values. The R² value is shown next to EMF. Model fit indices: χ²/df = 1.364, CFI = 0.970, RMSEA = 0.048.